Propagation of electro-magnetic radiation in the marine atmospheric boundary layer is discussed, with emphasis on aerosol effects on extinction. For engineering purposes the Navy Aerosol Model (NAM) is most suitable. Results from validations of NAM (or LOWTRAN) are summarized. NAM applies well to the open ocean and in purely marine atmospheres at mid-latitudes. In coastal regions, however, discrepancies have been observed, as well as for the largest particles in high wind conditions and in a sub-tropical region. Also at lower heights than 10 m, for which NAM was developed, modifications are required. For mixing to higher altitudes the Naval Oceanic Vertical Aerosol Model has been developed which uses NAM as the kernel. Consequences of the formulation of NAM, in terms of the sum of three log-normal distributions, for the mixing process are discussed.

Using a path integral formulation, a general framework is developed to describe the statistical moments of a wave propagating in an intermittent random medium. Estimates for slow or fast large-scale fluctuations reveal general trends of the phenomena.

A correction to the definition of the atmospheric coherence diameter is suggested here. The basis of this new approach is the existence of an aerosol MTF which is often the dominant ingredient of the atmospheric MTF. As defined by Fried about 25 years ago, atmospheric MTF was related to turbulence MTF only. In the case of a Gaussian approximation of the aerosol MTF, an analytical expression is derived for the aerosol-derived coherence diameter. This parameter is related to the aerosol MTF's cutoff frequency, and to its asymptote at high spatial frequencies. Qualitative validation of the theory is presented, based on measured MTFs in the open atmosphere. Overall atmospheric coherence diameter is generally the smaller between the turbulence and aerosol coherence diameters. The results here appear applicable particularly to cost-effective thermal imaging system design, although applications are considered too for the visible and near infrared.

The computer code LOWTRAN is widely and extensively used for the prediction of propagation of IR radiation through the atmosphere. The latest version of this code, LOWTRAN 7, is assumed to be the most elaborate and accurate one. Hence it was decided to test its validity by comparing its prediction for ground-to-space slant paths with actual transmittance measurements with the sun as a blackbody source. A good agreement between the theoretical predictions and the experimental results were obtained in the 8 - 12 micrometers spectral region for all zenith angles between 90 degree(s) and 60 degree(s) (0 degree(s) to 30 degree(s) above the horizon). In the 3 - 5 micrometers spectral region some spectral discrepancy was observed though the value of the integrated measured transmittance agreed well with the predicted one. The reasons for this can be assumed to be in the new band model absorption parameters (in the 3 - 4 micrometers region) and in the water continuum model (in the 4.4 - 5.2 micrometers region).

For horizontal path observation, atmospheric scene degradation of high resolution infrared (IR) imagery is more than an extinction coefficient derived from LOWTRAN calculations. The reduction in ability to distinguish scene features has three main sources. First, variation of the inherent radiation from the objects and backgrounds in the scene can cause decreased contrast. Second, the measured contrast from distant observation locations can be reduced by attenuation losses due to atmospheric propagation (contrast transmission) and path radiance that cannot be reestablished through sensor gain changes alone. Finally, blurring and distortion of scene details are also caused by thermal and humidity gradient induced optical turbulence and aerosol scattering. The Mobile Imaging Spectroscopy Laboratory (MISL) of the U.S. Army Research Laboratory was used to measure inherent scene dynamics and contrast transmission. Measurements useful for estimating the short and long exposure atmospheric modulation transfer function (MTF) in the IR were also made. An essential element of these measurements is a unique large area (1.8 m by 1.8 m) uniform temperature blackbody with spatial bar patterns. The measurements presented illustrate the dramatic interdependence of inherent contrast changes, contrast transmission, and atmospheric MTF.

Spatial distribution of aerosol density in the boundary layer can be measured with a scanning LIDAR system. These measurements can be used to visualize, through color coded R-H maps, the inversion layer height and the dispersion of aerosols from natural and manmade sources. LIDAR inversion height measurements were verified by simultaneously taking temperature profiles measurements with a meteorological balloon. The results obtained were in good agreement, suggesting LIDAR as a powerful tool to investigate aerosol dispersion in the boundary layer.

Modern infrared (IR) imaging systems are sensitive enough to detect weak targets, but background clutter makes the detection difficult. The introduction of an IR polarizer into thermal imaging systems is one of the techniques to improve this low target-to-clutter ratio. The use of polarized IR energy helps to detect man-made objects in complex natural backgrounds. Over the past 4 years, we have investigated the polarization properties of thermal IR radiation (8 - 12 micrometers ). In the course of our work, we have built an infrared imaging polarimeter and participated in field and laboratory experiments. This paper summarizes the results of our work. It includes a brief theoretical background, description of the equipment, and a comparison of our empirical findings with a theoretical model and with results of other researchers.

Pictures photographed by optical and electro-optical systems often suffer from distortion caused by atmospheric disturbance, electrical noise, and optical aberration introduced by the imaging system. In this paper, we suggest a method to restore pictures of natural scenes, under the assumption that they can be characterized as two-dimensional representations of fractional Brownian Motion (to be called fractal images). In this paper we synthesize fractal images, find ways to characterize their fractal dimension, and develop a new technique to restore the images.

The search strategy in field-of-regard target acquisition is considered. Three methods of choosing the sequence of fields-of-view to be searched in the field-of-regard are considered: random, `windshield-wiper,' and `typewriter.'

Recent experimental measurements of overall atmospheric modulation transfer function (MTF) indicate significant difference between the turbulence and overall atmospheric MTFs, except often at midday when turbulence is strong. We suggest here a physical explanation for those results which essentially relates to what we call a practical instrumentation-based atmospheric aerosol MTF which is a modification of the classical aerosol MTF theory. It is shown that system field-of-view and dynamic range affect strongly aerosol and overall atmospheric MTFs. It is often necessary to choose between MTF and SNR depending upon dynamic range requirements. Also, a new approach regarding aerosol absorption is presented. It is shown that aerosol-absorbed irradiance is spatial frequency dependent and enhances the degradation in image quality arising from received scattered light. This is most relevant for thermal imaging. An analytically corrected model for the aerosol MTF is presented which is relevant for imaging. An important conclusion is that the aerosol MTF is often the dominant part in the actual overall atmospheric MTF all across the optical spectral region.

Atmospheric modulation transfer function (MTF) measurements in both thermal imaging atmospheric windows are presented for the first time to the best of the authors' knowledge. Surprisingly, results indicate significant angular spatial frequency dependence of the MTF, in contradiction to the conventional approach which refers to atmospheric attenuation only. A theoretical explanation is discussed, based upon aerosol forward scattering and absorption effects, which are shown to be angular spatial frequency dependent and yield MTF results similar to those measured.

Spectral radiance of various background elements (e.g., vegetation, rocks, snow and concrete) were measured in the 4.5 - 5 micrometers atmospheric window, both during the day and night. Effective temperatures of these surfaces were calculated and an attempt was made to evaluate true temperatures as well. The results are quite satisfactory, probably due to the following reasons: (1) The emissivity of most natural surfaces in this spectral region is high. Therefore the non-thermal (reflected solar component of the radiance) is small. (2) The spectral variation of the emissivity of most natural surfaces in this spectral region is very small, thus facilitating the evaluation of contact surface temperature. The results suggest the feasibility of using the 4.5 - 5 micrometers atmospheric window for background temperature evaluation.

A high-frequency electromagnetic wave propagating through a randomly inhomogeneous medium will create random intensity pattern whose spatial structure is a function of the radiation wavelength and the parameters of the medium. The ability to detect the spatial variation and to find correlation between different patterns depends on the ratio between the receiver aperture and the characteristic spatial scale of the speckle. In this work, using the multiscale expansion solutions for the nonaveraged coherence functions, we have constructed expressions for the integral correlation characteristics and performed a qualitative analysis of the correlation dependences as functions of range and detector aperture for media with Gaussian and power-law refractive index fluctuation spectra. Numerical computations are presented and comparison with the asymptotic results obtained for the strong scattering regime is performed.

Image quality together with the correction of distortion is very important for airborne photographs used in photogrammetry. Progress in the optical design as well as in production technology and film resolution improved the storage capacity of information to 5 x 108 pixels in the image. Distortion can be corrected to be in the region of one micrometer eventhough it needs only to be known in order to be corrected using image processing. Flight conditions usually cause disturbance of image quality. The optical transfer function (OTF) and especially the modulation transfer function (MTF) are useful techniques for measuring the image quality of photographs. The MTF of the image forming system is the result of the contributions of the links in the image transfer forming chain, namely, the camera, the film, image motion (in systems without forward motion compensation, FMC), vibrations, and the atmosphere. 1- 5 For the analysis of the image forming systems, artificial or natural edges are imaged the edge gradient analysis (EGA), and varying spatial frequency patterns are used for the grating pattern technique. The aim of this paper is to analyse the influence of image motion, vibration and the atmosphere on the image quality. Results are shown and discussed.

Principal Component Analysis is a well-known statistical method which is commonly applied in the analysis of multispectral images. This paper presents some of the results that have been received by this method of multispectral images of natural background terrain at high spectral and spatial resolution in the spectral range of 0.4 - 1.05. The results show that images at the visible band and near IR are highly correlated within each band, but poorly correlated between bands. However, PC analysis shows that they are not independent spectral bands, since they have high correlation or anti-correlation with the main principal components. Another important finding is a `neutral wavelength,' which shows very little spectral difference between bare soil and vegetation. This wavelength can be used as an indicator for vegetation types and seasonal changes, and for spectral enhancement at remotely sensed images in real time.

To investigate the nature of a peak near 700 nm on the reflectance spectrum of water, simultaneous measurements of the reflectance spectra in the region of 400 to 750 nm and relevant water quality constituent concentrations (phytoplankton chlorophyll-a, dissolved organic matter, and suspended matter) were carried out. A shift of the peak position from about 680 nm up to 715 nm and an increase of the peak magnitude, when chlorophyll concentration increased from 3 up to 100 (mu) g/l, were observed. The relationships of the magnitude and position of the peak to chlorophyll-a, obtained in the first data set, were applied to several independent data sets. These data sets cover various trophic states of water bodies, all seasons, and a variety of climatic regimes. Comparison of predicted and measured pigment concentrations shows that the peak parameters can be used as precise indicators and predictors for phytoplankton concentration. It contributes significantly to the increase in the accuracy of remote estimation of pigment concentration in productive inland waters.

A theoretical model which describes the performance of cw and Q-switched diode end pumped laser oscillators was developed. The model takes into account the pumping geometry, the cavity geometry, the physical parameters of the lasing material, and various mechanisms of losses in the oscillator. Among the analytical predictions of this model are: threshold of lasing, total output energy, and temporal behavior of the laser pulse in the case of a Q-switched operation. In most of the models applied until now, an assumption of small gain was made in order to get an analytic expression for the output power of the laser in steady state conditions. In the present model this limiting assumption is dropped. In addition, in the Q-switched part of the model an analytical estimation is incorporated for two efficiency factors: one describing the fill factor of the lasing mode and the other considering the finite lifetime of the lower laser level.

With the goal of developing high efficiency diffraction limited, high repetition rate lasers, a 2 watt quasi-cw diode laser (SDL 2272-P1) was used to end pump Nd:YAG and Nd:YLF slabs. The 1 X 200 micrometers diode stripe was coupled via two lenses and an anamorphic prism pair to the TEM₀₀ mode of the cavity with an efficiency of 83%. A total light to light conversion efficiency of 44% was achieved in the free-running Nd:YAG laser with a slope efficiency of 48% when pumped at 808 nm. The measured efficiency in the free-running Nd:YLF when pumped in the (sigma) polarization at 809 nm was 32% with a slope efficiency of 34%. When pumped in the (pi) polarization, the corresponding Nd:YLF values were 25% and 28%, respectively. In both Nd:YAG and Nd:YLF, the output laser beam was diffraction limited at repetition rates of up to 1 kHz.

Optical coherent LIDARs are used for remote sensing in both atmospheric and space environments. These systems offer higher angular resolution with significantly more compact components as compared to the alternative microwave-based systems. One of the factors which limits the range of coherent LIDARs is the coherence length of the source. It is well known that the signal in a coherent LIDAR system undergoes a significant decay over a range comparable to the source coherence length. An often overlooked fact is the range-associated increase of the optical noise. In this paper we present the spectral power density of the optical noise in a heterodyne LIDAR system, and explore its dependence on the range and the local oscillator power. The magnitude of the optical noise increases with range, thus accelerating the signal-to-noise degradation. Another interesting observation is that in general, the signal- to-noise ratio is not a monotonically increasing function of the local oscillator power.

The general heat conduction equation is solved for the case of variable thermal conductivity and heat desposition. The solution is applied to some cases of interest for understanding the thermal gradients which exist in high average power solid state lasers. The effect of the temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity and the spatial inhomogeneity of the excitation energy on the accuracy of calculating the magnitude of the temperature gradient in a laser rod is considered. The analytical solutions for some cases of interest are presented, as are some specific results.

The effects of mirror instability and jitter (mechanical noise) in Q switched lasers is investigated. Pulse shapes and timing are significantly disturbed due to loss modulation induced by these effects. A simple model is presented. Several types of pulses are obtained, which are compared with experimental traces of a CO₂ rotating mirror Q switched laser. Loss modulation as a global means of pulse shaping is also discussed.

A sealed leucosapphire cell containing rubidium vapor was used as an effective Q switching element for a flash lamp pumped Nd:YAG laser. The control of the laser parameters such as output energy, pulse length, and repetition rate by simple vapor temperature exchange has been demonstrated. Single giant pulses with energy 100 mJ and duration 20 ns were observed. Trains of 40 ns pulses separated by 6 microsecond(s) intervals were generated at the lowered temperature of the cell. The experiment was verified using a LiF Q switch. The cell is proposed for Q switching of high power and wide spectral range lasers.

A model is proposed for the dynamics of evolution of various transverse modes in the resonator of a passively Q-switched laser. On the basis of this reasoning, a double-pulse YAG:Nd³⁺ laser with a delay between pulses controllable in the 20 - 100 ns range was implemented experimentally. A satisfactory agreement was obtained between the parameters of the real laser and the results of the numerical calculation.

We present a new type of ideal non-imaging secondary concentrator, the tailored edge-ray concentrator (TERC), that can closely approach the thermodynamic limit of concentration, and illustrate it for both linear and point-focus Fresnel reflectors. For large rim-angle heliostat fields, practical-sized secondaries with shapes that should be relatively easy to fabricate can achieve concentrations substantially above those of compound parabolic concentrators (CPCs). This superiority stems from designing so as to accommodate the particular flux from the heliostat field. The edge-ray principle used for generating the new secondary dictates a heliostat tracking strategy different from the conventional one, but equally easy to implement.

Compact beam shaping elements based on diffractive optics are presented. A general grating function for transforming oblique Gaussian beams into flat-top distribution is derived. Experimental data is shown for reshaping of CO₂ and HeNe Gaussian beams.

Laser heads based on two and three dimensional nonimaging concentrators were built and tested. The ray tracing and experimental results for concentrators illuminated by imaging primary concentrators are presented. These concentrators are currently used for pumping of solid state lasers of five hundred watts of laser power.

For laser applications very smooth surfaces are required more frequently. High power systems need components, such as cavity mirrors and lenses for beam forming and focussing, with extremely high laser damage threshold. In low power systems for metrology any light scattering originating from a relatively high surface roughness results in measuring errors. In both cases flat and curved surfaces with very low micro-roughness rms values close to 1 nm or even less have to be produced. This requires the optimization of the polishing process. Minimized surface roughness and light scattering are shown as results of this optimization.

A method of calculating numerically the optical transfer function appropriate to any type of image motion and vibration, including random ones, has been developed. Here, the numerical calculation method is compared to experimental measurement, and the close agreement justifies implementation in image restoration for blurring deriving from any type of image motion. In addition, statistics regarding limiting resolution as a function of relative exposure time for low frequency vibrations involving random blur are described. An analytical approximation to the probability function has been obtained. This can be implemented in target acquisition probability. Comparison of image quality is presented for three different kinds of motion: linear, acceleration, and high frequency vibration for the same blur radius. The parameter considered is the power spectrum of the picture.

To correctly model the target acquisition capability of an electro-optic system manned by a human, the basic process of how the human visual system interacts with the scene must be considered. The Center for Night Vision and Electro-Optics (CNVEO) model has analyzed the detection of targets both in the static situation and in the case of a person searching a field of regard. However, this model does not provide a quantitative measure of the clutter of a scene. In this paper, we propose two new metrics of clutter, derived from our understanding of the human visual system. The first is a metric based on the distinctness of the target in its surroundings, that can be used both locally for target contrast and globally for overall clutter. The second is a metric based on the calculation of likely fixation points of a human observer. We compare the results to an experiment performed at Hughes Corporation and described in our paper.

The possibility was investigated of developing a missile dome from a transparent plastic for near infra-red transmission by which the windows form an integral part of it. The environmental requirements of the dome were severe as it had to stand up to a velocity in excess of 2 Mach at zero altitude without diminishing its transparency and thus, its optical performance. Several promising plastic candidates were investigated in a hot-wind tunnel and their eventual optical degradation was measured. Special coatings against EMI and reflection losses were applied resisting the high temperature and aero-dynamic pressure occurring during flight. Results of these experiments are given.

A thin bimorph adaptive mirror can correct corrupted wave fronts when measured by a wave front curvature sensor. The correction is given analytically in terms of Zernike polynomials. Boundary conditions of the mirror, discreteness of the electrodes, and coupling between low and high order Zernike polynomials limits the fit, especially for atmospherically corrupted wave fronts.

Germanium is a material used widely in infra-red optics both in the 3 - 5 micrometers and 8 - 12 micrometers spectral regions. A useful property is its high refractive index, (> 4.0) which helps achieve low aberrations. However, it has several drawbacks, one of which is the relatively large dependence of the refractive index on temperature (dn/dT). This temperature dependence of the refractive index is discussed.

Atmospheric turbulence degraded wave fronts can be described as fractal surfaces from the Fractional Brownian motion family. Fractal character can be ascribed both to the spatial and temporal behavior. Implications of this description with regard to computer simulation and prediction are presented.

ELOP, the largest electro-optics company in Israel, is developing the technological capability of designing an electro-optical camera for earth resources monitoring from space. The description in this paper focuses on the impact of the space environment, such as vacuum, particle radiation and thermal changes and gradients, on the theoretical design concept and solutions adopted.

This paper describes a star tracker (ST) as a major sub-system of an autonomous satellite navigation system. The navigation system is comprised of a star tracker which determines the satellite attitude and a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver which determines the satellite's position. The ST is based on a thermoelectrically cooled CCD camera, wide field of view optics with an optical baffle, and an electronic processing unit. The (ST) is a smart sensor that performs acquisition and recognition processes by comparing the CCD captured sky image with a stored star catalog map. The wide field of view optics makes possible the computation of the three-axis attitude from a single exposure. It also decreases the required computation time due to a need of a smaller star catalog and a more effective star identification procedure. The design consideration, star recognition algorithms, and electronic hardware are described. An accuracy of about 100 (mu) rad is expected by the use of a centroid algorithm and a special image processing technique.

An astronomical UV space telescope, TAUVEX (Tel Aviv University Ultra-violet Explorer), is being built by EL-OP in conjunction with the Tel Aviv University Wise Observatory. It will be launched in 1995 on the SRG satellite to act as the optical monitor for the Danish X-Ray Telescope, SODART, and to survey the sky simultaneously in three UV wavelength bands. This paper describes the imaging aspects of the system.

A compact horizon sensor has been developed for use on TECHSAT-1 and other small satellites. The stringent requirements for low weight and power have been met by designing a static sensor with a new type of thermal detector array. The sensor uses four identical telescopes mounted at an optimal angle for the satellite altitude, and a microprocessor to convert the data from the detectors into an accurate measure of the angle to the nadir.

TAUVEX (Tel-Aviv Ultra Violet Explorer) is a telescope for the far UV spectral region. It will record images of the UV radiation from stars and other celestial sources from an orbiting satellite. The optical system consists of three identical and independent telescopes. The objectives of the system are based on a Ritchey-Chretien (RC) model with a field lens group to enlarge the field of view (FOV). These telescopes have been designed for the spectral region of 140 nm - 280 nm, and each has a spectral filter wheel to select a narrow spectral bandwidth. The use of different spectral bands for each telescope enables a multi spectral image to be recorded. This paper reviews the key optical design and fabrication points. The different available objective types for this program are described and analyzed to clarify the reasons for choosing the Ritchey-Chretien model.

The UV astronomical telescope built by EL-OP in conjunction with the Tel Aviv University Wise Observatory is planned to be launched in 1995 on the SRG satellite. The telescope is comprised of three almost identical Ritchey-Chretien co-aligned telescopes. One of the most critical components of each of these telescopes is their primary mirror. The demanding requirements imposed by the optical design play a major role in the design of such elements. A complex design scheme which involves the utilization of finite element structural analysis in evaluating thermal as well as static and dynamic loadings, is involved. The technique of mirror light weighting involves the know-how and acquaintance with manufacturing limitations as well as mirror mounting techniques. Through a substantial use of CAD tools and the above mentioned analytical tools, a rigorous trial and error effort was undertaken until a final design was accomplished.

The high fluxes of particles (mainly electrons and protons) that are present in the Earth's radiation belts, produce a deterioration in the electrical parameters of semiconductor devices carried by space vehicles. Semiconductor solar cells that have to be mounted on the surface of these vehicles, or on special outside panels, in order to maximize solar energy utilization are particularly prone to this deleterious effect. Although various interesting ways of increasing the radiation stability of semiconducting materials themselves have been suggested, for example, lithium ion implantation, or high-temperature annealing (up to 400o), the deposition of transparent and radiation-stable coatings remains the most effective way of shielding solar cells. The transparent shield is effective because it either attenuates or cuts off altogether the low energy particles, of which there are many in the Earth's radiation belts (the energy spectrum of protons and electrons in the radiation belts decreases sharply with increasing energy). It is known that it is precisely these low-energy particles that have the most destructive effect on cells and reduce their efficiency.

An UV spectro-radiometer operating in the 0.24 - 0.30 micrometers spectral region is being devised for Earth albedo measurements from space aboard the TECHSAT-1 satellite. The sensor incorporates a four-element, wide FOV (14 degree(s)) optic with an interference wedge as a spectral dispersive element. The spatial and spectral scanning is accomplished using a single CsTe cathode photomultiplier operating in the photon-counting mode. The sensor is capable of a 2 mrad spatial and 0.01 micrometers spectral resolution. The sensor is intended to measure the Earth backscattering albedo. The spectral profile of the albedo is a function of the ozone vertical distribution. The scientific goal of this project is to investigate the long-term impact of Kuwaiti oil fires on the stratosphere above the Middle East region. An additional goal is to find out the extent of global ozone depletion over the Middle East.

An x-ray detector experiment is presented. The experimental setup integrates on board new and commercially available x-ray detectors, custom designed charge sensitive amplifiers, signal processing, control unit and memory chips. The experimental system is included in TECHSAT (Technion Satellite), scheduled to be launched in 1994.

The TAUVEX UV astronomical telescope, which is designed and manufactured by El-Op with the collaboration of the Tel-Aviv University Wise Observatory and sponsored by ISA (Israel Space Agency), consists of three identical telescopes operating in the 140 nm - 280 nm spectral range. This range is characterized by increased sensitivity to both molecular and particulate contaminants, which requires a strict contamination control approach. The present work describes the contamination control approach for TAUVEX that was jointly developed by Soreq NRC and El-Op. It covers all the project phases: design, manufacturing, integration, and testing. It contains various activities including contamination budget allocation, materials selection policy, theoretical analysis of molecular contamination due to outgassing and prediction of optical degradation in the space environment, experiments to measure transmission loss vs. contaminant concentration, special design features, assembly and testing environment, cleanliness control of thermal vacuum and vibration tests and selection and use of monitoring equipment.

The space ultrahigh vacuum environment induces outgassing of spacecraft organic materials which may condense on optical surfaces and degrade the performance of optical systems. Lab simulation outgassing tests show transmission and/or reflection losses of optical components (i.e., optically polished plates and mirrors) measured at the wavelength range of 200 - 800 nm. The losses caused by deposition of outgassed products on the optical surfaces at the amount of 10^-6 - X10^-4 g/cm² were measured. The loss mechanism is most likely scattering of light. This experimental data was combined with a computerized ab-initio model which calculated the contamination developed in a simulated preliminary design of the TAUVEX astronomical UV research telescope. This enabled us to estimate the performance of TAUVEX's optical system as a function of mission time, and served as a guideline for selection of materials, cleanliness requirements, thermal conditions and bakeout processes.

A six feature all-sky star field identification algorithm has been developed for interplanetary navigation of autonomous spacecraft. The minimum identifiable star pattern element consists of an oriented star triplet defined by three stars, their celestial coordinates, and visual magnitudes. Two navigational instruments are made obsolete by using this algorithm integrated with the CCD-based imaging camera.

Based upon the principles of non-imaging optics, we present new optical designs for illumination devices (luminaries) that can achieve maximal lighting efficiency (no trapped radiation) while retaining excellent angular control of the projected radiation. One class of luminaries presented can produce relatively uniform flux maps on distant targets while also insuring perfectly sharp (discontinuous) angular cutoffs. For a second class of luminaries, for which pair-overlap flux maps are to be exploited and the flux maps of individual devices have sloping shoulders, we can produce extremely uniform flux maps on distant targets while retaining excellent angular (glare) control. Results are presented for symmetrical configurations in two dimensions (trough-like reflectors) for flat and for tubular sources. Primary applications can include lighting and infrared heating.

Angle-of-arrival fluctuations of a wave propagating through the atmosphere, as well as lateral fluctuations (wandering) of thin beams are phase-dependent quantities useful for sensing atmospheric turbulence, in particular for measuring structure parameter and inner and outer scale. Application to practical methods of measurement is described with some examples.