This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9226, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction (if any), and Conference Committee listing.

It is well established that carbonaceous meteorites contain water, carbon, biogenic elements and a host of organic chemicals and biomolecules. Several independent lines of evidence indicate that the parent bodies of the CI1 and CM2 carbonaceous meteorites are most probably the C-type asteroids or cometary nuclei. Several of the protein amino acids detected in the meteorites exhibit chirality and have an excess of the L-enantiomer -- such as in the amino acids present in the proteins of all known life forms on Earth. Isotopic studies have established that the amino acids and nucleobases in the CI1 and CM2 carbonaceous meteorites are both indigenous and extraterrestrial. Optical and Scanning Electron Microscopy studies carried out by researchers during the past half century have revealed the presence of complex biogenic microstructures embedded in the rock-matrix of many of carbonaceous meteorites similar to extinct life-forms known as acritarchs and hystrichospheres. Carbonaceous meteorites also contain a wide variety of large filaments that exhibit the complex morphologies and correct size ranges of known genera and species of photosynthetic microorganisms such as cyanobacteria and diatoms. However, EDAX investigations have shown that these carbon-rich filaments typically have nitrogen content below the level of detection (<0.5% atomic) of the instrument. EDAX studies of living and dead terrestrial biological materials have shown that nitrogen can be detected in ancient mummies and tissue, hair and teeth of Pleistocene Mammoths. Hence, the absence of detectable nitrogen in the filaments provides direct evidence that they do not represent recent biological contaminants that invaded these meteorite stones after they were observed to fall to Earth. The spectral and fluorescence properties of pigments found in several species of terrestrial cyanobacteria which are similar to some microfossils found in carbonaceous meteorites may provide valuable clues to help search for evidence for biomolecules and life on the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, asteroids and comets.

We present results of optical simulations for a laser phased array directed energy system. The laser array consists of individual optical elements in a square or hexagonal array. In a multi-element array, the far-field beam pattern depends on both mechanical pointing stability and on phase relationships between individual elements. The simulation incorporates realistic pointing and phase errors. Pointing error components include systematic offsets to simulate manufacturing and assembly variations. Pointing also includes time-varying errors that simulate structural vibrations, informed from random vibration analysis of the mechanical design. Phase errors include systematic offsets, and time-varying errors due to both mechanical vibration and temperature variation in the fibers. The optical simulation is used to determine beam pattern and pointing jitter over a range of composite error inputs. Results are also presented for a 1 m aperture array with 10 kW total power, designed as a stand-off system on a dedicated asteroid diversion/capture mission that seeks to evaporate the surface of the target at a distance of beyond 10 km. Phase stability across the array of λ/10 is shown to provide beam control that is sufficient to vaporize the surface of a target at 10 km. The model is also a useful tool for characterizing performance for phase controller design in relation to beam formation and pointing.

This paper presents the motivation behind and design of a directed energy planetary defense system that utilizes laser ablation of an asteroid to impart a deflecting force on the target. The proposed system is called DE-STARLITE for Directed Energy System for Targeting of Asteroids and ExploRation – LITE as it is a small, stand-on unit of a larger standoff DE-STAR system. Pursuant to the stand-on design, ion engines will propel the spacecraft from low-Earth orbit (LEO) to the near-Earth asteroid (NEA). During laser ablation, the asteroid itself becomes the "propellant"; thus a very modest spacecraft can deflect an asteroid much larger than would be possible with a system of similar mission mass using ion beam deflection (IBD) or a gravity tractor. DE-STARLITE is capable of deflecting an Apophis-class (325 m diameter) asteroid with a 15-year targeting time. The mission fits within the rough mission parameters of the Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM) program in terms of mass and size and has much greater capability for planetary defense than current proposals and is readily scalable to the threat. It can deflect all known threats with sufficient warning.

metrology, spectroscopy, atomic clocks and geodesy. This technology will be a key enabler to several proposed NASA science missions. Although lasers such as Q-switched Nd-YAG are now commonly used in space, other types of lasers - especially those with narrow linewidth - are still few in number and more development is required to advance their technology readiness. In this paper we discuss a reconfigurable laser frequency stabilization testbed, and end-to-end modeling to support system development. Two important features enabling testbed flexibility are that the controller, signal processing and interfaces are hosted on a field programmable gate array (FPGA) which has spacequalified equivalent parts, and secondly, fiber optic relay of the beam paths. Given the nonlinear behavior of lasers, FPGA implementation is a key system reliability aspect allowing on-orbit retuning of the control system and initial frequency acquisition. The testbed features a dual sensor system, one based upon a high finesse resonator cavity which provides relative stability through Pound-Drever-Hall (PDH) modulation and secondly an absolute frequency reference by dither locking to an acetylene gas cell (GC). To provide for differences between ground and space implementation, we have developed an end-to-end Simulink/ Matlab^®-based control system model of the testbed components including the important noise sources. This model is in the process of being correlated to the testbed data which then can be used for trade studies, and estimation of space-based performance and sensitivities. A 1530 nm wavelength semiconductor laser is used for this initial work.

On 15 February 2013, a previously unknown ~20 m asteroid struck Earth near Chelyabinsk, Russia, releasing kinetic energy equivalent to ~570 kt TNT. Detecting objects like the Chelyabinsk impactor that are orbiting near Earth is a difficult task, in part because such objects spend much of their own orbits in the direction of the Sun when viewed from Earth. Efforts aimed at protecting Earth from future impacts will rely heavily on continued discovery. Ground-based optical observatory networks and Earth-orbiting spacecraft with infrared sensors have dramatically increased the pace of discovery. Still, less than 5% of near-Earth objects (NEOs) ≥100 m/~100 Mt TNT have been identified, and the proportion of known objects decreases rapidly for smaller sizes. Low emissivity of some objects also makes detection by passive sensors difficult. A proposed orbiting laser phased array directed energy system could be used for active illumination of NEOs, enhancing discovery particularly for smaller and lower emissivity objects. Laser fiber amplifiers emit very narrow-band energy, simplifying detection. Results of simulated illumination scenarios are presented based on an orbiting emitter array with specified characteristics. Simulations indicate that return signals from small and low emissivity objects is strong enough to detect. The possibility for both directed and full sky blind surveys is discussed, and the resulting diameter and mass limits for objects in different observational scenarios. The ability to determine both position and speed of detected objects is also discussed.

Asteroids that threaten Earth could be deflected from their orbits using laser directed energy or concentrated solar energy to vaporize the surface; the ejected plume would create a reaction thrust that pushes the object away from its collision course with Earth. One concern regarding directed energy deflection approaches is that asteroids rotate as they orbit the Sun. Asteroid rotation reduces the average thrust and changes the thrust vector imparting a time profile to the thrust. A directed energy system must deliver sufficient flux to evaporate surface material even when the asteroid is rotating. Required flux levels depend on surface material composition and albedo, thermal and bulk mechanical properties of the asteroid, and asteroid rotation rate. In the present work we present results of simulations for directed energy ejecta-plume asteroid threat mitigation. We use the observed distribution of asteroid rotational rates, along with a range of material and mechanical properties, as input to a thermal-physical model of plume generation. We calculate the expected thrust profile for rotating objects. Standoff directed energy schemes that deliver at least 10 MW/m² generate significant thrust for all but the highest conceivable rotation rates.

Over the past few years, a series of studies have demonstrated the theoretical benefits of using laser ablation in order to mitigate the threat of a potential asteroid on a collision course with earth. Compared to other slow-push mitigation strategies, laser ablation allows for a significant reduction in fuel consumption since the ablated material is used as propellant. A precise modelling of the ablation process is however difficult due to the high variability in the physical parameters encountered among the different asteroids as well as the scarcity of experimental studies available in the literature. In this paper, we derive a new thermal model to simulate the efficiency of a laser-based detector. The useful material properties are first derived from thermochemical tables and equilibrium thermodynamic considerations. These properties are then injected in a 3D axisymetrical thermal model developed in Matlab. A temperature-dependent conduction flux is imposed on the exterior boundary condition that takes into account the balance between the incident power and the power losses due to the vaporization process across the Knudsen layer and the radiations respectively. A non-linear solver is finally used and the solution integrated over the ablation front to reconstruct the net thrust and the global mass flow. Compared to an initial 1D model, this new approach shows the importance of the parietal radiation losses in the case of a CW laser. Despite the low energy conversion efficiency, this new model still demonstrates the theoretical benefit of using lasers over more conventional low-thrust strategies.

The objective of the Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE) is to study the performance of novel materials when subjected to the synergistic effects of the harsh space environment for several months. MISSE missions provide an opportunity for developing space qualifiable materials. Several laser and lidar components were sent by NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) as a part of the MISSE 7 mission. The MISSE 7 module was transported to the international space station (ISS) via STS 129 mission that was launched on Nov 16, 2009. Later, the MISSE 7 modulewas brought back to the earth via the STS 134 that landed on June 1, 2011. The MISSE 7 module that was subjected to exposure in space environment for more than one and a half year included fiber laser, solid-state laser gain materials, detectors, and semiconductor laser diode. Performance testing of these components is now progressing. In this paper, the results of performance testing of a laser diode module sent by NASA Langley Research Center on MISSE 7 mission will be discussed. This paper will present the comparison of pre-flight and post-flight performance of two different COTS acousto-optic modulator devices. Post-flight measurements indicate that these two devices did not undergo any significant performance degradation.

The application of photonics in space systems requires tight integration with the spacecraft systems to ensure accurate operation. This requires some detailed and specific system engineering to properly incorporate the photonics into the spacecraft architecture and to guide the spacecraft architecture in supporting the photonics devices. Recent research in product focused, elegant system engineering has led to a system approach which provides a robust approach to this integration. Focusing on the mission application and the integration of the spacecraft system physics incorporation of the photonics can be efficiently and effectively accomplished. This requires a clear understanding of the driving physics properties of the photonics device to ensure proper integration with no unintended consequences. The driving physics considerations in terms of optical performance will be identified for their use in system integration.

The space environment produces a number of performance challenges to satellite and spacecraft manufacturers that require measurements, including effects from hyperthermal atomic oxygen, charged particles, magnetic fields, spacecraft charging, ultraviolet radiation, micrometeoroids, and cryogenic temperatures. Ground tests involving a simulated space environment help explore these challenges, but also benefit from simulations that predict the anticipated physical phenomena, or help reconcile the measured observations to physical parameters. We present an update and application of a flexible multi-physics software simulation framework intended for predicting space environment performance and ground-test simulations of spacecraft. In this specific application we show how the energy dependent erosion yield may be applied with a rarefied gas dynamics simulation to aid comparison of terrestrial erosion rate measurements and on-orbit materials degradation. For the considered fluoropolymer material, we found that explicit consideration of the atomic oxygen energy distribution could potentially modify the expected correspondence between ground tests and space by 67%.

Previous studies on the radiation effects upon polymer and polymer-based photonic materials suggest that the radiation resistance of the material is heavily dependent on the choice of polymer-host and guest-chromophore. The best results to date have been achieved with electro optic polymeric materials based on CLD1 doped in APC, which has resulted in improved performance at the device level upon gamma-ray irradiation at moderate doses. Still, our understanding of the physical mechanisms behind the enhancement of the performance is unclear. In this paper, we discuss how polarized light microscopy could be used as a means to quantify the effect of the different physical parameters that influence the optical response of electro-optic polymeric thin film samples.

The possibility of embedding optical fiber sensors inside carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) for structural health monitoring purposes has already been demonstrated previously. So far however, these sensors only allowed axial strain measurements because of their low sensitivity for strain in the direction perpendicular to the optical fiber’s axis. The design flexibility provided by novel photonic crystal fiber (PCF) technology now allows developing dedicated fibers with substantially enhanced sensitivity to such transverse loads. We exploited that flexibility and we developed a PCF that, when equipped with a fiber Bragg grating (FBG), leads to a sensor that allows measuring transverse strains in reinforced composite materials, with an order of magnitude increase of the sensitivity over the state-of-the-art. In addition it allows shear strain sensing in adhesive bonds, which are used in composite repair patches. This is confirmed both with experiments and finite element simulations on such fibers embedded in CFRP coupons and adhesive bonds. Our sensor brings the achievable transverse strain measurement resolution close to a target value of 1 μstrain and could therefore play an important role for multi-dimensional strain sensing, not only in the domain of structural health monitoring, but also in the field of composite material production monitoring. Our results thereby illustrate the added value that PCFs have to offer for internal strain measurements inside composite materials and structures.

In this paper selected fiber optical point sensors that are of potential interest for deployment in aircraft are discussed. The operating principles together with recent measurement results are described. Examples include a high-temperature combined pressure and temperature sensor for engine health, hydraulics and landing gear monitoring, an ultra-high sensitive pressure sensor for oil, pneumatic and fluid aero systems applications and a combined acceleration and temperature sensor for condition monitoring of rotating components.

Fiber optic technology is making significant advances for use in a number of harsh environments, such as air and space platforms. Many of these applications involve integration into systems which make extensive use of optical fiber for high bandwidth signal transmission. The large signal transmission bandwidth of optical fiber has a large and positive impact on the overall performance and weight of the cable harness. There are many benefits of fiber optic systems for air and space harsh environment applications, including minimal electromagnetic interference and environmental effects, lightweight and smaller diameter cables, greater bandwidth, integrated prognostics and diagnostics and the ability to be easily upgraded. To qualify and use a fiber optic cable in space and air harsh environments requires treatment of the cable assembly as a system and understanding the design and behavior of its parts. Many parameters affect an optical fiber’s ability to withstand a harsh temperature and radiation environment. The space radiation environment is dependent on orbital altitude, inclination and time, contains energetic magnetically-trapped electrons in the outer Van Allen radiation belt, trapped protons in the inner belt and solar event protons and ions. Both transient and permanent temperature and radiation have an attenuation effect on the performance of the cable fiber. This paper presents an overview of defining fiber optic system and component performance by identifying operating and storage environmental requirements, using appropriate standards to be used in fiber optic cable assembly manufacturing and integration, developing inspection methods and fixtures compliant with the selected standards and developing a fiber optic product process that assures compliance with each design requirement.

High data rate and long range free space lasercom links require multi-watt optical transmitter power, which creates a need for high power redundancy switches to ensure high payload reliability. A high power optical switch (HPOS) with less than 0.15 dB loss and capable of switching more than 40 watts of optical power in a single mode fiber has been previously demonstrated in the Transformational Satellite Communication System program. Prototype switches, in either 1x2 or 2x2 configuration, have been subjected to pyro-shock test, vibration test, and vacuum operation. These switches showed no performance degradation as a result of these tests. Three prototypes went through 60,000 35-watt switching cycles and over 30 million low power switching cycles, and the switches showed no mechanical failure. The HPOS life is about 3.2 million switching cycles with a definition of 3-dB degradation in on/off extinction ratio, which is well suited for space applications.

Compact, radiation-hardened free-space optical data links are enabled by two-dimensional VCSEL arrays that can be modulated at high data rates while being scaled to produce high power levels. The combination of high modulation speed and scalability of power is enabled by the use of arrays which are flip-chip mounted onto sub-mounts that contain electrical strip line waveguides to provide an impedance match for the VCSELs. For laser wavelengths in the 910 nm to 1020 nm range, the lasers can be back-emitting through the GaAs substrate, which enables the use of etched microlenses to manipulate the beams from the individual elements. This approach of using VCSELs in arrays is inherently reliable and radiation-hard. The resulting free space optical data links are particularly advantageous for space-borne applications where size, weight, and power are important factors. Performance characterization of links constructed with these lasers demonstrates their suitability for short distance to medium distance data transfer at up to 10 Gb/s.

World-wide interest in germanium-on-silicon photonics has grown enormously during the past few years. We report on our study of germanium deposition for which we found that there is potential to engineer films with significant increases in hole mobility. In addition, we report on our development of wet-etch techniques to pattern thin films and to form tapered regions of Ge, both important for the fabrication of Ge photonic devices.

Nanotechnology based thermoelectric materials are considered attractive for developing highly efficient thermoelectric devices. Nano-structured thermoelectric materials are predicted to offer higher ZT over bulk materials by reducing thermal conductivity and increasing electrical conductivity. Consolidation of nano-structured powders into dense materials without losing nanostructure is essential towards practical device development. Using the gas atomization process, amorphous nano-structured powders were produced. Shockwave consolidation is accomplished by surrounding the nanopowder-containing tube with explosives and then detonated. The resulting shock wave causes rapid fusing of the powders without the melt and subsequent grain growth. We have been successful in generating consolidated nanostructured bismuth telluride alloy powders by using shockwave technique. Using these consolidated materials, several types of thermoelectric power generator devices have been developed. Shockwave consolidation is anticipated to generate large quantities of nanostructred materials expeditiously and cost effectively. In this paper, the technique of shockwave consolidation will be presented followed by Seebeck Coefficient and thermal conductivity measurements of consolidated materials. Preliminary results indicate a substantial increase in electrical conductivity due to shockwave consolidation technique.

We report the design and fabrication of Al_0.95Ga_0.05As_0.56Sb_0.44/Al_0.75Ga_0.25As_0.56Sb_0.44 solar cell as a top cell for triple-junction cell grown on InP substrate. The digital alloy technique, capable to grow high quality materials with composition falling in miscibility gap, was employed to grow high quality Al(Ga)AsSb to realize Al(Ga)AsSb solar cells. A test Al_0.95Ga_0.05As_0.56Sb_0.44/Al_0.75Ga_0.25As_0.56Sb_0.44 cell grown by molecular beam epitaxy was fabricated and characterized. The measured energy conversion efficiency is up to 8.9% under simulated AM0 radiation for the Al_0.95Ga_0.05As_0.56Sb_0.44/Al_0.75Ga_0.25As_0.56Sb_0.44 cell without AR coating on cell surface.

A series of new conjugated polymers with evolving frontier orbitals (HOMOs and LUMOs) have been designed, synthesized, and characterized for potential polymer based photon harvesting device applications such as solar cells and photo detectors. The relationships between monomer or repeat unit side groups, frontier orbitals of the polymer, and changes in optoelectronic and physical properties of the polymer systems have been systematically investigated and correlated. For instance, when comparing the properties of the newly synthesized polymers in two groups: sulfone-based and phenyl-based, the difference in thermal stability and optical properties were consistent when changing from the carbazole monomer unit to the terephthaldicarboxaldehyde. The polymers containing the carbazole unit exhibited increased thermal stability, blue shift of optical absorption, higher frontier orbitals, and larger band gaps than the terephthaldicarboxaldehyde containing counterparts. These could be attributed to the higher electron density of the carbazole than the terephthaldicarboxaldehyde, and the possible deviation from planarity in the polymer main chain due to possible steric hindrance of the branched substituents.

Exposure to proton radiation degrades the performance of wavelength infrared (MWIR) and long wavelength infrared (LWIR) HgCdTe photodetectors to varying degrees depending on the dose and energy of the incident particles. We report an experimental characterization of test devices of multiple sizes and configurations designed to investigate the effect proton radiation has on detector performance. Photodetector devices, from test element devices to fully functional focal plane arrays, are processed into MWIR and LWIR HgCdTe material grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), in both single and two-color architectures, on CdZnTe and CdTe-buffered Si substrates. The devices receive doses of 30 krad(Si) and 100 krad(Si) from an incident beam of 63 MeV protons. The lower dose induces negligible degradation. At the higher dose, MWIR detectors begin to show reduced activation energy for higher temperatures, while LWIR detectors are more strongly affected with the activation energy being halved following proton irradiation.

Midwave infrared (MWIR) photodetectors that do not require cryogenic cooling would significantly reduce the complexity of the cooling system, which would lead to a reduction in the size, weight, and cost of the detection system. The key aspect to realize high operating temperature (HOT) photodetectors is to design device structures that exhibit significantly lower levels of dark current compared to the existing technologies. One of the most attractive material systems to develop HOT photodetectors is InAs/GaSb Type II Strained layer Superlattice (SLS). This is due the ability of Type II SLS materials to engineer the band structure of the device, which can be exploited to make devices with unipolar barriers. It has been shown that, compared to the traditional homojunction SLS devices, band-gap engineered unipolar barrier SLS devices can obtain significantly lower levels of dark current. In this work, we report on the design, growth, and fabrication of mid wave infrared detectors based on type-II InAs/GaSb strained layer superlattice for high operating temperatures. The device architecture is the double-barrier heterostructure, pBiBn design. Under an applied bias of -10 mV and an operating temperature of 200 K, the tested devices show a dark current density of 4 x 10^-3 A/cm² and a quantum efficiency of 27%. At 4.5 μm and 200 K, the devices show a zero-bias specific detectivity of 4.4 x 10¹⁰ Jones.

Under elevated defect concentrations, MWIR, III-V nBn detectors exhibit diffusion limited performance with elevated dark current densities. The resulting diffusion current is limited by the generation of carriers through defect states in the neutral n-type absorber and a dark current dependence on the defect density described by one of two limits, a short absorber or long absorber limit. This characteristic contrasts that exhibited by defect limited, conventional pn junction based photodiodes which exhibit performance limited by Shockley-Read-Hall generation in the depletion layer rather than diffusion based processes.

Minority carrier recombination lifetime (MCRL) is a key material parameter for space-based infrared (IR) detector performance affecting both dark current and responsivity. Displacement damage due to energetic massive particles in space environments, such as protons, can significantly degrade the recombination lifetime, thereby reducing detector performance. Therefore, characterizing the change in MCRL with proton dose is of general interest from a radiation-hardness perspective. So-called “bag tests,” or measurements taken prior to and following room temperature proton irradiation of the device, are often of limited value to MCRL characterization since thermal annealing effects may be present. Here, progress toward a portable MCRL measurement system employing time resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) is presented. This system can be taken to remote radiation sources where irradiation can be performed on samples followed by TRPL measurements while maintaining temperature throughout. Ideally, this system permits measurement of a lifetime radiation damage factor constant, or the change in lifetime with step-wise changes in proton dose, which is a measure of the defect introduction rate. The pulsed-laser driven TRPL measurement system is able to interrogate IR materials of interest mounted in an optical cryostat held indefinitely at a desired temperature. A system description is given and results of verification measurements are discussed for several IR detector materials.

This paper is a review of the properties of bio-based materials, to assess their suitability for space-based environments. Materials under investigation included salmon deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-based biopolymers and preliminary results of nucleobase materials. We will present optical damage thresholds, stability to ultraviolet light exposure, photodegradation, temperature stability for both the bulk and film form of the materials and gamma-ray irradiation. We have also included comparisons with more traditional polymers.