This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 10233, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, and Conference Committee listing.

Silver halide emulsions have been considered one of the most energetic sensitive materials for holographic applications. Nonlinear recording effects on holographic reflection gratings recorded on silver halide emulsions have been studied by different authors obtaining excellent experimental results. In this communication specifically we focused our investigation on the effects of refractive index modulation, trying to get high levels of overmodulation that will produce high order harmonics. We studied the influence of the overmodulation and its effects on the transmission spectra for a wide exposure range by use of 9 μm thickness films of ultrafine grain emulsion BB640, exposed to single collimated beams using a red He-Ne laser (wavelength 632.8 nm) with Denisyuk configuration obtaining a spatial frequency of 4990 l/mm recorded on the emulsion. The experimental results show that high overmodulation levels of refractive index produce second order harmonics with high diffraction efficiency (higher than 75%) and a narrow grating bandwidth (12.5 nm). Results also show that overmodulation produce diffraction spectra deformation of the second order harmonic, transforming the spectrum from sinusoidal to approximation of square shape due to very high overmodulation. Increasing the levels of overmodulation of refractive index, we have obtained higher order harmonics, obtaining third order harmonic with diffraction efficiency (up to 23%) and narrowing grating bandwidth (5 nm). This study is the first step to develop a new easy technique to obtain narrow spectral filters based on the use of high index modulation reflection gratings.

We demonstrate holography in a traditional two-component holographic photopolymer in which the solid polymer host matrix has three distinct sets of material properties: 1) an initially liquid state appropriate for formulation and casting into the desired final shape, 2) a rubbery state with low glass transition temperature appropriate for holographic recording, and 3) a final higher modulus state with improved mechanical robustness. The general chemical scheme is to form the second stage rubbery polymer network via a thiol-acrylate Michael addition with an excess of one functional group. Holographic recording then takes place via radically initiated photopolymerization of a mobile high refractive index monomer, per the common two-chemistry process. During final flood illumination of the material, the remaining monomer and excess functional groups are polymerized to increase crosslink density and improve the mechanical properties of the matrix. We described three such material schemes and report general trends. We demonstrate high (96%) efficiency holographic recording, low (1.1%) shrinkage, no oxygen sensitivity and stage 2 glass transition temperatures at or above room temperature, sufficient to enable self-supporting films.

Recent improvements in solid state CW lasers, recording materials and light sources (such as LED lights) for displaying colour holograms are described. Full-color analogue holograms can now be created with substantially better image characteristics than previously possible. To record ultra-realistic images depends on selecting the optimal recording RGB laser wavelengths. Analogue color holograms of the Denisyuk type are the ones which really create the illusion of viewing a real object behind the plate rather than an image of it. It is necessary to use extremely low-light-scattering panchromatic recording materials, which means the use of ultra-fine-grain, silver-halide emulsions. The third factor is the light source used to display the recorded color holograms. Progress in illumination technology, by employing the new LED lights, is leading to a further major reduction in display noise and to a significant increase of the clear image depth and brightness of the holograms. Recording and displaying color holograms (referred to as OptoClones™) of museum artefacts are described.

We present a phase retrieval technique for the recovery of complex-valued wave-fields from multiple near-field diffraction measurements. The proposed method does neither rely on any a priori knowledge about the sample nor on knowledge about an external reference wave, but instead uses multiple self-referencing object exit surface waves that are iteratively recovered. The key ingredient to our approach is a system of relaxed coupled waves that allow for the incorporation of holographic data. We use diffraction measurements of multiple exit surface waves as well as their holograms at multiple sample-detector distances to provide sufficient data redundancy to successfully reconstruct the complex-valued wave field. Parameters for stable performance are investigated. Numerical reconstruction is shown by simulation and experiment to be robust against systematic errors such as position uncertainty and noise. The method proposed is realizable at low cost with instrumentation available in typical optical laboratories.

Coded aperture correlation holography (COACH) is a recently developed incoherent digital holographic technique. In COACH, two holograms are recorded: the object hologram for the object under study and another hologram for a point object called PSF hologram. The holograms are recorded by interfering two beams, both diffracted from the same object point, but only one of them passes through a random-like coded phase mask (CPM). The same CPM is used for recording the object as well as the PSF holograms. The image is reconstructed by correlating the object hologram with a processed version of the PSF hologram. The COACH holographic technique exhibits the same transverse and axial resolution of the regular imaging, but with the unique capability of storing 3D information. The basic COACH configuration consists of a single spatial light modulator (SLM) used for displaying the CPM. In this study, the basic COACH configuration has been advanced by employing two spatial light modulators (SLMs) in the setup. The refractive lens used in the basic COACH setup for collecting and collimating the light diffracted by the object is replaced by an SLM on which an equivalent diffractive lens is displayed. Unlike a refractive lens, the diffractive lens displayed on the first SLM focuses light with different wavelengths to different axial planes, which are separated by distances larger than the axial correlation lengths of the CPM for any visible wavelength. This characteristic extends the boundaries of COACH from three-dimensional to four-dimensional imaging with the wavelength as its fourth dimension.

Security holograms are widely used for authenticity protection of documents and products due to difficulties of such a protection mark falsification. The quality of holograms significantly depends on accordance of calculated and real phase relief parameters. We represent the method for automated quality inspection of security holograms. This method based on determining of phase relief parameters by registered results of the intensity distribution in diffraction orders. The profile of relief as a harmonious distribution is represented. Distortion of the ideal relief profile influence on the accuracy of this method. The mathematical expressions for evaluating the influence of the phase relief distortion on the intensity distribution in the diffraction orders are represented. Parameters of the correlation functions approximation describing the relief distortion are determined. The dependence of the intensity values on the standard deviation of the relief distortion is represented. The results of quality inspection for real security holograms are shown.

We report on the characterization of volume holographic gratings recorded in photopolymerizable nanocomposites incorporated with hyperbranched polymer (HBP) acting as transporting organic nanoparticles. The HBP possesses ultrahigh index of refraction owing to the inclusion of triazine and aromatic ring units. Such an HBP was easy to disperse into acrylate monomer without any aggregation, so that films with good optical quality are available. A transmission volume grating with refractive index changes up to 2.3×10^-2 was obtained at 27 vol.% HBP concentration and 7 vol.% multifunctional acrylate monomer at a wavelength of 532 nm.

Two-beam holographic exposure and subsequent monitoring of the time-dependent first-order Bragg diffraction is a common method for investigating the refractive index response of holographic photopolymers for a range of input writing conditions. The experimental set up is straightforward, and Kogelnik’s well-known coupled wave theory (CWT)[1] can be used to separate measurements of the change in index of refraction (Δn) and the thickness of transmission and reflection holograms. However, CWT assumes that the hologram is written and read out with a plane wave and that the hologram is uniform in both the transverse and depth dimensions, assumptions that are rarely valid in practical holographic testing. The effect of deviations from these assumptions on the measured thickness and Δn become more pronounced for over-modulated exposures. As commercial and research polymers reach refractive index modulations on the order of 10^-2, even relatively thin (< 20 μm thick) transmission volume holograms become overmodulated. Peak Δn measurements for material analysis must be carefully evaluated in this regime. We present a study of the effects of the finite Gaussian write and read beams on the CWT analysis of photopolymer materials and discuss what intuition this can give us about the effect other non-uniformities, such as mechanical stresses and significant absorption of the write beam, will have on the analysis of the maximum attainable refractive index in a material system. We use this analysis to study a model high Δn two-stage photopolymer holographic material using both transmission and reflection holograms.

There is an increasing demand for new holographic recording materials. One of them are photopolymers, which are becoming a classic media in this field. Their versatility is well known and new possibilities are being created by including new components, such as nanoparticles or dispersed liquid crystal molecules in classical formulations, making them interesting for additional applications in which the thin film preparation and the structural modification have a fundamental importance. Prior to obtaining a wide commercialization of displays based on photopolymers, one of the key aspects is to achieve a complete characterization of them. In this sense, one of the main parameters to estimate and control is the shrinkage of these materials. The volume variations change the angular response of the hologram in two aspects, the angular selectivity and the maximum diffraction efficiency. One criteria for the recording material to be used in a holographic data storage application is the shrinkage, maximum of 0.5%. Along this work, we compare two different methods to measure the holographic recording material shrinkage. The first one is measuring the angle of propagation for both diffracted orders ±1 when slanted gratings are recorded, so that an accurate value of the grating vector can be calculated. The second one is based on interference measurements at zero spatial frequency limit. We calculate the shrinkage for three different photopolymers: a polyvinyl alcohol acrylamide (PVA/AA) based photopolymer, one of the greenest photopolymers whose patent belongs to the Alicante University called Biophotopol and on the last place a holographic-dispersed liquid crystal photopolymer (H-PDLC).

The photopolymerizable nanoparticle-polymer composites (NPCs) have thus far shown their excellent performance in practical applications, such as holographic data storage, nonlinear optics and neutron optics. We have demonstrated twofold enhancement of the saturated refractive index modulation (Δn_sat) of ZrO₂ NPC volume gratings recorded at high spatial frequencies by doping with a single functional thiol as a chain transfer agent (CTA). This result suggested that the incorporation of a CTA in an NPC is very useful for holographic applications of volume gratings in light and neutron optics. Such chemical modification of NPC volume gratings may be more effective by doping with multifunctional thiols. This is so because polymer features such as the molecular weight and the crosslinking network density can be tailored more diversely by introducing multifunctional thiols in photopolymers. The influences of varying functionalities of thiols as chain transfer agents on the thermal stability of a volume grating recorded in a photopolymerizable ZrO₂ nanoparticle-polymer composite film have been investigated.

In this research, we present new holographic material based on fluoride photo-thermo-refractive glass(PTR) - chloride PTR glass. One of the benefit of this type of PTR glass is positive refractive index change. During this work, for the first-time volume Bragg gratings were recorded in this kind of material. The first experiments revealed that such gratings are mixed i.e. possess both absorption and phase components. Complex analysis shows that both refractive index and absorption coefficient are modulated inside the grating structure. We found out that at first there is no strict dependence of the refractive index change from dosage, but as we continue the process of thermal treatment – dependence is appear. Exposure influence on the refractive index change for this glass differs from fluoride one and shows some sort of saturation after the exposure of 4-6 J/cm² . We distinguished refractive index change and absorption coefficient change and observed both behavior with increasing thermal treatment time. We found out that the increase of thermal treatment time results in the significant refractive index change. At the same time the absorption does ‘not practically change. It was found that maximum modulation of refractive index is comparable with fluoride PTR glass and achieves value of 1600 ppm. The modulation of absorption is equal to induced absorption caused by silver nanoparticles and depends from reading wavelength. Our study shows that almost all absorption is modulated inside the grating.

Volume Holographic Optical Elements (vHOEs) gained wide attention as optical combiners for the use in smart glasses and augmented reality (SG and AR, respectively) consumer electronics and automotive head-up display applications. The unique characteristics of these diffractive grating structures – being lightweight, thin and flat – make them perfectly suitable for use in integrated optical components like spectacle lenses and car windshields. While being transparent in Off-Bragg condition, they provide full color capability and adjustable diffraction efficiency. The instant developing photopolymer Bayfol® HX film provides an ideal technology platform to optimize the performance of vHOEs in a wide range of applications.

Important for any commercialization are simple and robust mass production schemes. In this paper, we present an efficient and easy to control one-beam recording scheme to copy a so-called master vHOE in a step-and-repeat process. In this contact-copy scheme, Bayfol® HX film is laminated to a master stack before being exposed by a scanning laser line. Subsequently, the film is delaminated in a controlled fashion and bleached. We explain working principles of the one-beam copy concept, discuss the opto-mechanical construction and outline the downstream process of the installed vHOE replication line. Moreover, we focus on aspects like performance optimization of the copy vHOE, the bleaching process and the suitable choice of protective cover film in the re-lamination step, preparing the integration of the vHOE into the final device.

The photorefractive effect is a phenomenon that forms a rewritable hologram in a material. This phenomenon can be utilized in devices including 3D displays, optical tomography, novelty filters, phase conjugate wave generators, and optical amplification. Ferroelectric liquid crystal blends composed of a smectic liquid crystalline mixture, a photoconductive chiral dopant, and an electron trap reagent exhibit significant photorefractivity together with rapid responses. As such, they allow the dynamic amplification of moving optical signals. The photoconductive chiral dopants used in the previous study are ter-thiphene derivatives so that the photorefractive effect was examined at 488 nm. In the present work, chiral dopants possessing quarter-thiphene chromophore were synthesized and the photorefractive effect of the FLC blends at longer wavelength was demonstrated.

Optically-driven diffusion of high refractive index molecules within a transparent thermoset polymer matrix is a promising platform for hybrid optics that combines a wide range of optical structures from large scale holograms to micron-scale gradient index waveguides in a single integrated optical system. Design of such a system requires characterization of the optical response of the material at a wide range of spatial scales and intensities. While holographic analysis of the photopolymers is appropriate to probe the smaller spatial scales and lower intensity optical response, quantitative phase mapping of isolated structures is needed to probe the response to the higher intensities and lower spatial frequencies used in direct write lithography of waveguides. We apply the transport of intensity equation (TIE) to demonstrate quantitative refractive index measurements of 10 μm-scale localized gradient index structures written into diffusive photopolymer materials using both single- and two-photon polymerization. These quantitative measurements allow us to study the effect of different exposure conditions and material parameters such as writing beam power, exposure time, and wt% loading of the writing monomer on the overall profile of the refractive index structure. We use these measurements to probe the time scales over which diffusion is significant, and take advantage of the diffusion of monomer with a multiple-write scheme that achieves a peak refractive index contrast of 0.025.

For fabrication of diffractive optical elements or for holographic data storage, photopolymer materials have turned out to be serious candidates, taking into account their performances such as high spatial resolution, dry processing capability, ease of use, high versatility. From the chemical point of view, several organic materials are able to exhibit refractive index changes resulting from polymerization, crosslinking or depolymerization, such as mixtures of monomers with several reactive functions and oligomers, associated to additives, fillers and to a photoinitiating system (PIS).

In this work, the efficiencies of two and three component PIS as holographic recording materials are analyzed in term of photopolymerization kinetics and diffraction yield. The selected systems are based on visible dyes, electron donor and electron acceptor. In order to investigate the influence of the photophysical properties of dye on the holographic recording material performance time resolved and steady state spectroscopic studies of the PIS are presented. This detailed photochemical studies of the PIS outline the possible existence of photocyclic initiating systems (PCIS) where the dye is regenerated during the chemical process. Simultaneously, these visible systems are associated to fluorinated acrylate monomers for the recording of transmission gratings. To get more insight into the hologram formation, gratings’ recording curves were compared to those of monomer to polymer conversion obtained by real time Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. This work outlines the importance of the coupling of the the photochemical reactions and the holographic resin. Moreover the application of the PCIS in holographic recording outlines the importance of the photochemistry on final holographic material properties: here a sensitive material with high diffraction yield is described. Indeed, this work outlines the importance of the coupling between the photochemistry underlying the radicals photogeneration and the holographic resin.

Diarylethenes are P-type photochromic systems showing reversible light-induced modulation of optical properties, e.g., transmittance and refractive index, in the visible and near infrared regions. Transmittance can be progressively tuned according to the illumination dose, and the pattern written and erased several times with light. We demonstrated binary Computer Generated Holograms based on of photochromic materials, to be used as adaptable reference surfaces in interferometric tests. We encoded by Direct Laser Writing binary amplitude Fresnel Zone Plates into photochromic substrates and successfully tested them into an interferometric setup. More recently, we exploited the non-threshold behavior of photochromic materials to encode grayscale CGHs, which give a better wavefront reconstruction than binary holograms. We propose to use a device based on a Digital Micro-mirror Device as a real-time reconfigurable mask. We recorded for the first time amplitude grayscale CGHs and reconstructed them with high fidelity in shape, intensity and size.

Volume phase holographic elements are becoming attractive thanks to the large efficiency and good optical quality. They are based on photosensitive materials where a modulation of the refractive index is induced. In this paper, we highlight the strategies to obtain a change in the refractive index in a dielectric material, namely a change in the material density and/or in the molecular polarizability. Moreover, we show the results achieved for materials that undergo the photo-Fries reaction as function of the molecular structure and the illumination conditions. We also report the results on a system based on the diazo Meldrum’s acid where volatile molecules are produced upon light exposure.

We will introduce current status of development of a birefringence volume phase holographic (B-VPH) grating, volume binary (VB) grating and reflector facet transmission (RFT) grating developing as the novel dispersive optical element for astronomical instruments for the 8.2m Subaru Telescope, for next generation 30 m class huge ground-based telescopes and for next generation large space-bone telescopes. We will also introduce a hybrid grism developed for MOIRCS (Multi-Object InfraRed Camera and Spectrograph) of the Subaru Telescope and a quasi-Bragg (QB) immersion grating. Test fabrication of B-VPH gratings with a liquid crystal (LC) of UV curable and normal LCs or a resin of visible light curable are performed. We successfully fabricated VB gratings of silicon as a mold with ridges of a high aspect ratio by means of the cycle etching process, oxidation and removal of silicon oxide. The RFT grating which is a surface-relief (SR) transmission grating with sawtooth shaped ridges of an acute vertex angle. The hybrid grism, as a prototype of the RFT grating, combines a high-index prism and SR transmission grating with sawtooth shape ridges of an acute vertex angle. The mold of the SR grating for the hybrid grism on to a work of Ni-P alloy of non-electrolysic plating successfully fabricated by using our ultra-precision machine and a single-crystal diamond bite. The QB immersion grating was fabricated by a combination of an inclined QB grating, Littrow prism and surface reflection mirror.

We present a general strategy for characterizing the reaction and diffusion kinetics of polymeric holographic recording media by which key processes are decoupled and independently measured. The separate processes are combined into a predictive model that is shown to make accurate quantitative predictions of index response over three orders of exposure dose (~1 to ~10³ mJ/cm²) and feature size (0.35 to 500 microns) for a model material similar to commercial media. Several critical performance concepts also emerge from the model, including a prediction of a formulation’s maximum potential index response, insight into why a particular material may not achieve this maximum and the process that limits the recording resolution.

Two-chemistry polymer systems are attractive platforms for a wide range of optical and mechanical applications due to the orthogonal chemistries of the initial thermoset matrix and the subsequent photo-initiated polymerization. This scheme allows the mechanical and optical properties of the materials to be individually addressed. However, the mechanical properties of both the initial matrix and the photopolymer system affect the performance of these materials in many applications from holography to optically-actuated folding. We present a mechanical model along with experimental demonstrations of a two-chemistry holographic photopolymer system. A three-dimensional finite element model is used to simulate the mechanical and chemical responses in time. The model uses standard material measurements to predict both large-scale deformation and more localized stress and strain. To demonstrate the magnitude of mechanical stresses possible in these materials, we show bending of thin strips with UV light activation using an optical absorber to create an intensity gradient in depth. The resulting non-uniform polymerization causes shrinkage and bending toward the light followed by swelling and bending away from the light caused by monomer diffusion. In addition to this large-scale bending, we demonstrate that the model can be used to qualitatively predict surface deformations that can be used for surface relief optical elements. The mechanical model enables understanding of shrinkage and swelling properties of a material system that affect the performance of that system over a wide range of illumination conditions.

In present paper, we represent a study on the effect of RE dopants (lanthanum, erbium, ytterbium, and neodymium) on the process of the photo-thermo-induced (PTI) crystallization. During this work, we investigated each step of the PTI crystallization process including silver particle formation, growth of shell and nanocrystal. To perform these observations, we reduced the temperature of thermal treatment below the glass transition temperature to slow down all processes inside the glass. We found out that the silver nanoparticles formation process does not depend from the concentration of RE ions and is the same as in case of the parent PTR glass. In other hand the growth kinetics of AgBr-NaBr shell and NaF nanocrystals differ from the parent glass and depend on RE concentration. Our observations show no difference in final position of plasmon resonance, which means that the PTI crystallization process itself stays the same and is not affected by the RE dopants. Further study shows that utmost achievable refractive index change falls off with rare earth dopant concentration increase mainly due to the bond formed between dopant and fluorine. This bond prevents fluorine from participation in crystallization process thus overall volume fraction of the crystalline phase decreases. This effect can be corrected by addition of fluorine in the chemical composition of the glass at the synthesis. In conclusion, we show that refractive index change in doped glass with appropriate concentration of additional fluorine is same as in the parent glass (1500 ppm).

We present a method for holographic imaging through a volume scattering material, which is based on selfreference and light with good spatial but limited temporal coherence. In contrast to existing techniques, we do not require a separate reference wave, thus our approach provides great advantages towards the flexibility of the measurement system. The main applications are remote sensing and investigation of moving objects through gaseous streams, bubbles or foggy water for example. Furthermore, due to the common path nature, the system is also insensitive to mechanical disturbances. The measurement result is a complex amplitude which is comparable to a phase shifted digital hologramm and therefore allows 3D imaging, numerical refocusing and quantitative phase contrast imaging. As an example of application, we present measurements of the quantitative phase contrast of the epidermis of an onion through a volume scattering material.

We present an experimental configuration that enables form measurement from a single-shot camera exposure. It combines two-wavelength contouring with spatial multiplexing synthetic-aperture digital holography. The synthetic-aperture in this work is formed by simultaneously illuminating the test object from two different angles. The two illumination directions and the two-wavelength contouring result in four holograms which are spatially multiplexed on a single camera target avoiding unwanted cross-interference between them by means of coherence gating. In contrast to standard holographic contouring methods, the proposed technique reduces speckle decorrelation noise and enables single shot form measurement. To demonstrate this technique, the shape of a micro cold drawing part is determined.

In digital holography, techniques of noise suppression from the perspective of reference arm have been maturely developed. The object counterpart, however, is still in its infancy. Self-pumped phase conjugation technique which involves a BaTiO3 crystal was introduced unto reflective-type digital holographic microscopy to suppress scattering noise derived from the object arm, prior to recording stage. A phase distorter was introduced as scattering source, and signal-to-noise ratio was calculated. Furthermore, induced method was proposed to speed up the response time.

Terahertz radiation lies between the microwave and infrared regions in the electromagnetic spectrum. Emitted frequencies range from 0.1 to 10 THz with corresponding wavelengths ranging from 30 μm to 3 mm. In this paper, a continuous-wave Terahertz off-axis digital holographic system is described. A Gaussian fitting method and image normalisation techniques were employed on the recorded hologram to improve the image resolution. A synthesised contrast enhanced hologram is then digitally constructed. Numerical reconstruction is achieved using the angular spectrum method of the filtered off-axis hologram. A sparsity based compression technique is introduced before numerical data reconstruction in order to reduce the dataset required for hologram reconstruction. Results prove that a tiny amount of sparse dataset is sufficient in order to reconstruct the hologram with good image quality.

Terahertz waves of which frequency spans from 0.1 to 10 THz bridge the gap between the infrared spectrum and microwaves. Owing to the special features of terahertz wave, such as penetrability and non-ionizing, terahertz imaging technique is a very significant and important method for inspections and detections. Digital holography can reconstruct the amplitude and phase distributions of a sample without scanning and it already has many successful applications in the area of visible and infrared light. The terahertz in-line digital holographic multi-plane imaging system which is presented in this paper is the combination of a continuous-wave terahertz source and the in-line scheme of digital holography. In order to observe a three dimensional (3D) shape sample only a portion of which appears in good focus, the autofocusing algorithm is brought to the data process. The synthetic aperture method is also applied to provide the high resolution imaging effect in the terahertz waveband. Both intrinsic twin images and defocused objective images confuse the quality of the image in an individual reconstructed plane. In order to solve this issue, phase retrieval iteration algorithm is used for the reconstruction. In addition, the reconstructed amplitude image in each plane multiplies the mask of which the threshold depends on the values of the autofocusing curve. A sample with simple artificial structure is observed which verifies that the present method is an authentic tool to acquire the multi-plane information of a target in terahertz waves. It can expect a wide application in terahertz defect detecting, terahertz medical inspection and other important areas in the future.

Holographic memory systems provide such advantages as long data storage term, high data density and do not need a power supply. Instead of recording interference pattern, it is proposed to record computer generated 1D Fourier holograms (CGFH). High information density is reached by multiplexing 1D Fourier Holograms. In this work factors, which impact the quality of recorded CGFH are analyzed in mathematical modelling and experimental researches.

The holographic disk reading device for recovery of CGFH is described. Principle of its work is shown. Analyzed approaches for developing algorithms, used in this device: guidance and decoding. Listed results of experimental researches.

A volume cylindrical holographic lens is fabricated in a photopolymer material to obtain a simple, lightweight and inexpensive lens which can collimate a diverging light beam. For a collimated beam, it is necessary to have uniform intensity across the beam diameter and to achieve equal diffraction efficiency for different regions of the cylindrical holographic lens, two methods are discussed. In the first method, the diffraction efficiency is improved by modifying the recording geometry in order to operate at a range of spatial frequencies for which the photopolymer provides higher diffraction efficiency. In the second method, the recording has been carried out with varying laser power and exposure time while keeping the exposure energy constant, in order to improve the material’s performance at the lower spatial frequencies. The second approach increases the uniformity of diffraction efficiency across the Holographic optical elements (HOEs) even when low spatial frequency components are present. The results obtained provide cylindrical holographic lenses with overall higher and uniform diffraction efficiency. This type of lens has the potential to be used in combination with LED sources and different lighting applications.

In this paper, a hybrid method of phase retrieval and off-axis digital holography is proposed for imaging of the complex shape objects. Off-axis digital hologram and in-line hologram are recorded. The approximate phase distributions in the recording plane and object plane are obtained by constrained optimization approach from the off-axis hologram, and they are used as the initial value and the constraints in the phase retrieval for eliminating the twin image of in-line holography. Numerical simulations and optical experiments were carried out to validate the proposed method.

Optical science and technologies require fast and precise measurements of wavefront curvature. Amount of wavefront measurement methods increased in the last few years. The important part of the modern wavefront sensors are holographic optical elements (HOE). This article shows a possibility of using HOE for generating Zernike aberration modes.

We investigated recording and readout of transmission gratings in composites of poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate (PEGDMA) and ionic liquids (IL) in detail. Gratings were recorded using a two-wave mixing technique for different grating periods, exposures and a series of film thicknesses. The recording kinetics as well as the post-exposure behavior of the gratings were studied by diffraction experiments. We found that - depending on the parameters - different grating types (pure phase or mixed) are generated, and at elevated thicknesses strong light-induced scattering develops. Gratings with thicknesses up to 85 micrometers are of the required quality with excellent optical properties, thicker gratings exhibit strong detrimental light-induced scattering. The obtained results are particularly valuable when considering PEGDMA-ionic liquid composites for applications as e.g., holographic storage materials or as neutron optic diffractive elements.

We demonstrate a digital holographic system for the fast inspection of the interior of micro parts, which is capable of working in an industrial environment. We investigate micro objects using Two-Wavelength-Contouring with a synthetic wavelength of approximately 90 μm. Special consideration is given to the mechanical robustness of the system. A compact Michelson-setup in front of the imaging optics increases the robustness for the measurement as the light paths of the object and reference have almost a common path. We also implement the Two-Frame Phase Shifting method for the recording of a complex wavefield. The use of two cameras for different polarized states for the object- and reference wave allows the recording of a complex wavefield in a single exposure per wavelength. The setup allows determining the shape of the interior surface of the object and faults such as scratches with a measurement uncertainty of approximately 5 μm.

Holography is an ideal three-dimensional (3D) image generation technique. However, conventional holographic displays require ultra-high resolution spatial light modulators (SLMs) to provide a large screen size and a large viewing zone. We have developed the viewing-zone scanning holographic displays employing MEMS SLMs, which enlarge the screen size and the viewing zone by use of the high frame-rate image generation by the MEMS SLMs [Opt. Express, vol. 22, 24713 (2014)]. The multi-channel system has also been developed for the scalable enlargement of the screen size; the two-channel system with a screen size of 7.4 in. and a viewing zone angle of 43º was demonstrated [Opt. Express, vol. 24, 18772 (2016)]. In this study, the hologram calculation technique for the viewing-zone scanning system is explained and the fast calculation technique is proposed. The viewing-zone scanning system is briefly explained. It consists of a MEMS SLM, a magnifying imaging system, and a horizontal scanner. The MEMS SLM generates hologram patterns at a high frame-rate. The generated hologram patterns are enlarged by the magnifying imaging system to increase the screen size. The magnifying imaging system also converges light to generate a viewing zone. Because the pixel pitch is enlarged, the width of the viewing zone is reduced. The reduced viewing zone is then scanned by the horizontal scanner to enlarge the viewing zone. The hologram calculation technique is explained. The viewing-zone scanning system sequentially generates number of reduced viewing zones at different horizontal positions during each scan and the same number of hologram patterns are displayed by the MEMS SLM. Because the wavefront produced by each hologram pattern is converged to the corresponding reduced viewing zone, the wavefront should be the object wave subtracted by the spherical wave converging to the reduced viewing zone. We found that the subtracted object wave becomes the object wave emitted from the 3D objects which are geometrically transformed referring to the position of the reduced viewing zone. Therefore, the hologram patterns are calculated for the geometrically transformed 3D objects. In this study, the point-based model is used to represent 3D objects; 3D objects consist of an aggregate of object points. The half zone-plane technique is used to calculate the hologram patterns [Appl. Opt., vol. 48, H64 (2009)], which allows the elimination of the conjugate image and the zero-order diffraction light using a single-sideband filter placed in the magnifying imaging system. The half zone-plates placed at the object points are added to obtain the hologram pattern. In this study, the half zone-plate is modified into the two-line zone-plate because the viewing-zone scanning system provides only horizontal parallax. A one-line zone-plate, which is a one-dimensional zone-plate, can generate an object point. The addition of the complementary line enables the elimination of the conjugate image and the zero-order diffraction light. This modification reduces the amount of calculation by several times, and greatly shortens the calculation time.

In holographic space, continuous object space can be divided as several discrete spaces satisfied each of same depth of field (DoF). In the environment of wearable device using holography, specially, this concept can be applied to macroscopy filed in contrast of the field of microscopy. Since the former has not need to high depth resolution because perceiving power of eye in human visual system, it can distinguish clearly among the objects in depth space, has lower than optical power of microscopic field. Therefore continuous but discrete depth of field (DDoF) for whole object space can present the number of planes included sampled space considered its DoF. Each DoF plane has to consider the occlusion among the object’s areas in its region to show the occluded phenomenon inducing by the visual axis around the eye field of view. It makes natural scene in recognition process even though the combined discontinuous DoF regions are altered to the continuous object space. Thus DDoF pull out the advantages such as saving consuming time of the calculation process making the hologram and the reconstruction. This approach deals mainly the properties of several factors required in stereo hologram HMD such as stereoscopic DoF according to the convergence, least number of DDoFs planes in normal visual circumstance (within to 10,000mm), the efficiency of saving time for taking whole holographic process under the our method compared to the existing. Consequently this approach would be applied directly to the stereo-hologram HMD field to embody a real-time holographic imaging.

Data of real scenes acquired in real-time with a Kinect sensor can be processed with different approaches to generate a hologram. 3D models can be generated from a point cloud or a mesh representation. The advantage of the point cloud approach is that computation process is well established since it involves only diffraction and propagation of point sources between parallel planes. On the other hand, the mesh representation enables to reduce the number of elements necessary to represent the object. Then, even though the computation time for the contribution of a single element increases compared to a simple point, the total computation time can be reduced significantly. However, the algorithm is more complex since propagation of elemental polygons between non-parallel planes should be implemented. Finally, since a depth map of the scene is acquired at the same time than the intensity image, a depth layer approach can also be adopted. This technique is appropriate for a fast computation since propagation of an optical wavefront from one plane to another can be handled efficiently with the fast Fourier transform. Fast computation with depth layer approach is convenient for real time applications, but point cloud method is more appropriate when high resolution is needed. In this study, since Kinect can be used to obtain both point cloud and depth map, we examine the different approaches that can be adopted for hologram computation and compare their performance.

The method of amplification of hologram was applied to the so-called Rozhdestvenskiy hooks, that were obtained in the Rozhdestvenskiy interferometer (Michelson interferometer, combined with a grating spectrograph). In such a device the absorption lines reveal themselves as specific “hooks”, whose curvature provides the information about the atomic oscillator force. The holographic amplification “smoothes” the hooks and thus makes their analysis much simpler.

Holographic Optical Elements (HOEs) cover nowadays a relevant position as dispersing elements in astronomical spectrographs because each astronomical observation could take advantage of specific devices with features tailored for achieving the best performances. The design and manufacturing of highly efficient and reliable dispersive elements require photosensitive materials as recording substrate where it is possible to precisely control the parameters that define the efficiency response (namely both the refractive index modulation and the film thickness). The most promising materials in this field are the photopolymers because, beside the ability to provide the tuning feature, they bring also advantages such as self-developing, high refractive index modulation and ease of use thanks to their simple thin structure, which is insensitive from the external environment. In particular, Bayfol HX photopolymers were characterized with the purpose to use them as new material for astronomical Volume Phase Holographic Gratings. We designed and manufactured VPHGs for astronomical instrumentation and we demonstrated how photopolymers are reliable holographic materials for making astronomical devices with performances comparable to those provided by VPHGs based on Dichromated Gelatins (DCGs), but with a much simpler production process. Moreover, the versatility of these materials allowed us to propose and realize novel architectures of the spectroscopic dispersive elements. A compact and unique single prism device was realized for a FOSC spectrograph and new multi-layered devices are proposed, stacking VPHGs one on top of the other to obtain many spectra in the instrument’s detector, with advantages as increase of resolution and signal to noise ratio with respect to the classical single dispersive element.

The use of volume and phase holographic elements in the design of photovoltaic solar concentrators has become very popular as an alternative solution to refractive systems, due to their high efficiency, low cost and possibilities of building integration. Angular and chromatic selectivity of volume holograms can affect their behavior as solar concentrators. In holographic lenses, angular and chromatic selectivity varies along the lens plane. Besides, considering that the holographic materials are not sensitive to the wavelengths for which the solar cells are most efficient, the reconstruction wavelength is usually different from the recording one. As a consequence, not all points of the lens work at Bragg condition for a defined incident direction or wavelength. A software tool that calculates the direction and efficiency of solar rays at the output of a volume holographic element has been developed in this study. It allows the analysis of the total energy that reaches the solar cell, taking into account the sun movement, the solar spectrum and the sensitivity of the solar cell. The dependence of the recording wavelength on the collected energy is studied with this software. As the recording angle is different along a holographic lens, some zones of the lens could not act as a volume hologram. The efficiency at the transition zones between volume and thin behavior in lenses recorded in Bayfol HX is experimentally analyzed in order to decide if the energy of generated higher diffraction orders has to be included in the simulation.

Several full-color high-definition CGHs are created for reconstructing 3D scenes including real-existing physical objects. The field of the physical objects are generated or captured by employing three techniques; 3D scanner, synthetic aperture digital holography, and multi-viewpoint images. Full-color reconstruction of high-definition CGHs is realized by RGB color filters. The optical reconstructions are presented for verifying these techniques.

High quality real-time digital holographic reconstruction, i.e. at 30 Hz frame rates, has been at the forefront of research and has been hailed as the holy grail of display systems. While these efforts have produced a fascinating array of computer algorithms and technology, many applications of reconstructing high quality digital holograms do not require such high frame rates. In fact, applications such as 3D holographic lithography even require a stationary mask. Typical devices used for digital hologram reconstruction are based on spatial-light-modulator technology and this technology is great for reconstructing arbitrary holograms on the fly; however, it lacks the high spatial resolution achievable by its analog counterpart, holographic film. Analog holographic film is therefore the method of choice for reconstructing highquality static holograms. The challenge lies in taking a static, high-quality digitally calculated hologram and effectively writing it to holographic film. We have developed a theoretical system based on a tunable phase plate, an intensity adjustable high-coherence laser and a slip-stick based piezo rotation stage to effectively produce a digitally calculated hologram on analog film. The configuration reproduces the individual components, both the amplitude and phase, of the hologram in the Fourier domain. These Fourier components are then individually written on the holographic film after interfering with a reference beam. The system is analogous to writing angularly multiplexed plane waves with individual component phase control.

During the past decades the optical imaging community witnessed a rapid emergence of novel imaging modalities such as coherent diffraction imaging (CDI), propagation-based imaging and ptychography. These methods have been demonstrated to recover complex-valued scalar wave fields from redundant data without the need for refractive or diffractive optical elements. This renders these techniques suitable for imaging experiments with EUV and x-ray radiation, where the use of lenses is complicated by fabrication, photon efficiency and cost. However, decoherence effects can have detrimental effects on the reconstruction quality of the numerical algorithms involved. Here we demonstrate propagation-based optical phase retrieval from multiple near-field intensities with decoherence effects such as partially coherent illumination, detector point spread, binning and position uncertainties of the detector. Methods for overcoming these systematic experimental errors - based on the decomposition of the data into mutually incoherent modes - are proposed and numerically tested. We believe that the results presented here open up novel algorithmic methods to accelerate detector readout rates and enable subpixel resolution in propagation-based phase retrieval. Further the techniques are straightforward to be extended to methods such as CDI, ptychography and holography.

The 2D non-separable linear canonical transform (2D-NS-LCT) can describe a variety of paraxial optical systems. Digital algorithms to numerically evaluate the 2D-NS-LCTs are not only important in modeling the light field propagations but also of interest in various signal processing based applications, for instance optical encryption. Therefore, in this paper, for the first time, a 2D-NS-LCT based optical Double-random- Phase-Encryption (DRPE) system is proposed which offers encrypting information in multiple degrees of freedom. Compared with the traditional systems, i.e. (i) Fourier transform (FT); (ii) Fresnel transform (FST); (iii) Fractional Fourier transform (FRT); and (iv) Linear Canonical transform (LCT), based DRPE systems, the proposed system is more secure and robust as it encrypts the data with more degrees of freedom with an augmented key-space.

Silver halide sensitized gelatin (SHSG) processes are interesting because they combine the spectral and energetic sensitivity of a photographic emulsions with good optical quality and high diffraction efficiency of dichromate gelatin (DCG). Previous papers had been demonstrated that it is possible to obtain diffraction efficiencies near to 90% with Agfa- Gevaert plates and Colour Holographic plates in SHSG transmission gratings.

In this communication, we report on the performances measured at room temperature and in cryogenic conditions of a set of volume phase holographic gratings(VPHGs) manufactured with SHSG process aimed at their use in astronomical instrumentations. Two set of diffraction gratings has been manufactured using different processing. The first with SHSG process and the second with typical bleached process (developed with AAC and bleached in R-10).

In both cases the plate was BB640, ultrafine grain emulsions with a nominal thickness of 9 μm. The recording was performed with asymmetric geometry a 30° degrees between the light beams of wavelength 632.8 nm (He-Ne laser), which give a raise a spectral frequency of 800 l/m. The exposure was between 46 to 2048 μJ/cm².

The results give us information about Bragg plane modification and reduction of diffraction efficiency when we introduced the VPHG to 77° K. In the case of SHSG process the final diffraction efficiency after cryogenic temperature are better at some exposure energy than previous measurements at room temperature. This experimental result give us possibilities to applied SHSG process in Astrophysics applications.

We have already developed multi-function and easy-to-use modulation software that was based on LabVIEW system. There are mainly four functions in this modulation software, such as computer generated holograms (CGH) generation, CGH reconstruction, image trimming, and special phase distribution. Based on the above development of CGH modulation software, we could enhance the performance of liquid crystal on silicon – spatial light modulator (LCoSSLM) as similar as the diffractive optical element (DOE) and use it on various adaptive optics (AO) applications. Through the development of special phase distribution, we are going to use the LCoS-SLM with CGH modulation software into AO technology, such as optical microscope system. When the LCOS-SLM panel is integrated in an optical microscope system, it could be placed on the illumination path or on the image forming path. However, LCOS-SLM provides a program-controllable liquid crystal array for optical microscope. It dynamically changes the amplitude or phase of light and gives the obvious advantage, “Flexibility”, to the system

Digital holographic microscopy can provide quantitative phase images (QPIs) of 3D profile of red blood cell (RBC) with nanometer accuracy. In this paper we propose applying k-means clustering method to cluster RBCs into two groups of young and old RBCs by using a four-dimensional feature vector. The features are RBC thickness average, surface area-volume ratio, sphericity coefficient and RBC perimeter that can be obtained from QPIs. The proposed features are related to the morphology of RBC. The experimental result shows that by utilizing the proposed method two groups of sphero-echinocytes (old RBCs) and non-spheroechinocytes RBCs can be perfectly clustered.

Terahertz frequency range spans from 0.1 to 10 THz. Terahertz radiation can penetrate nonpolar materials and nonmetallic materials, such as plastics, wood, and clothes. Then the feature makes the terahertz imaging have important research value. Terahertz computed tomography makes use of the penetrability of terahertz radiation and obtains three-dimensional object projection data. In the paper, continuous-wave terahertz computed tomography with a pyroelectric array detectoris presented. Compared with scanning terahertz computed tomography, a pyroelectric array detector can obtain a large number of projection data in a short time, as the acquisition mode of the array pyroelectric detector omit the projection process on the vertical and horizontal direction. With the two-dimensional cross-sectional images of the object are obtained by the filtered back projection algorithm. The two side distance of the straw wall account for 80 pixels, so it multiplied by the pixel size is equal to the diameter of the straw about 6.4 mm. Compared with the actual diameter of the straw, the relative error is 6%. In order to reconstruct the three-dimensional internal structure image of the straw, the y direction range from 70 to 150 are selected on the array pyroelectric detector and are reconstructed by the filtered back projection algorithm. As the pixel size is 80 μm, the height of three-dimensional internal structure image of the straw is 6.48 mm. The presented system can rapidly reconstruct the three-dimensional object by using a pyroelectric array detector and explores the feasibility of on non-destructive evaluation and security testing.

Phyllotaxy studies arrangements of biological entities, e.g. a placement of seeds in the flower head. Vogel (1979) presented a phyllotactic model based on series of seeds ordered along a primary spiral. This arrangement allows each seed to occupy the same area within a circular flower head. Recently, a similar arrangement of diffraction primitives forming a planar relief diffractive structure was presented. The planar relief structure was used for benchmarking and testing purposes of the electron beam writer patterning process. This contribution presents the analysis of local periods and azimuths of optical phyllotactic arrangements. Two kinds of network characteristic triangles are introduced. If the discussed planar structure has appropriate size and density, diffraction of the incoming light creates characteristic a phyllotactic diffraction pattern. Algorithms enabling the analysis of such behavior were developed and they were validated by fabricated samples of relief structures. Combined and higher diffraction orders are also analyzed. Different approaches enabling the creation of phyllotactic diffractive patterns are proposed. E–beam lithography is a flexible technology for various diffraction gratings origination. The e–beam patterning typically allows for the creation of optical diffraction gratings in the first diffraction order. Nevertheless, this technology enables also more complex grating to be prepared, e.g. blazed gratings and zero order gratings. Moreover, the mentioned kinds of gratings can be combined within one planar relief structure. The practical part of the presented work deals with the nano patterning of such structures by using two different types of the e–beam pattern generators.

This paper presents a fast calculation method for spherical computer-generated hologram by using a spherical harmonic transform. A three-dimensional (3D) object defined in the 3D Cartesian coordinate system is numerically Fourier transformed with fast Fourier transforms (FFTs). Fourier components on the spherical surface of the radius 1/λ are extracted. The wavefronts on the spherical surface can be calculated from the single spherical Fourier components. This paper reveals the analytical diffraction integral between the spherical Fourier components and the wavefront on the spherical surface. This diffraction integral is expressed in the form of convolution integral on the sphere and can be calculated very fast based on the spherical harmonic transform. By the numerical simulation, the validity and the effectiveness of our proposal has been verified.

Optical position encoder consists of movable coding grating and fixed analyzing grating. Light passing and diffracting through these two gratings creates interference signal on optical detector. Decoding of interference signal phase allows to determinate current position. Known optical position encoders use several accurate adjusted optical channels and detectors to gather several signals with different phase for higher encoder accuracy. We propose to use one optical channel with several-section analyzing diffraction grating for this purpose to simplify optical scheme and adjusting requirements. Optical scheme of position encoder based on four-section analyzing diffraction grating is developed and described in this paper.

We developed compressive self-interference digital holographic approach that allows retrieving three-dimensional information of the spatially incoherent objects from single-shot captured hologram. The Fresnel incoherent correlation holography is combined with parallel phase-shifting technique to instantaneously obtain spatial-multiplexed phase-shifting holograms. The recording scheme is regarded as compressive forward sensing model, thus the compressive-sensing-based reconstruction algorithm is implemented to reconstruct the original object from the under sampled demultiplexed sub-holograms. The concept was verified by simulations and experiments with simulating use of the polarizer array. The proposed technique has great potential to be applied in 3D tracking of spatially incoherent samples.

Visual security elements used in color holographic stereograms - three-dimensional colored security holograms - and methods their production is describes in this article. These visual security elements include color micro text, color-hidden image, the horizontal and vertical flip - flop effects by change color and image. The article also presents variants of optical systems that allow record the visual security elements as part of the holographic stereograms. The methods for solving of the optical problems arising in the recording visual security elements are presented. Also noted perception features of visual security elements for verification of security holograms by using these elements. The work was partially funded under the Agreement with the RF Ministry of Education and Science № 14.577.21.0197, grant RFMEFI57715X0197.

We describe a dispersive unit consisting of cascaded volume-phase holographic gratings for spectroscopic applications. Each of the gratings provides high diffractive efficiency in a relatively narrow wavelength range and transmits the rest of the radiation to the 0^th order of diffraction. The spectral lines formed by different gratings are centered in the longitudal direction and separated in the transverse direction due to tilt of the gratings around two axes. We consider a technique of design and optimization of such a scheme. It allows to define modulation of index of refraction and thickness of the holographic layer for each of the gratings as well as their fringes frequencies and inclination angles. At the first stage the gratings parameters are found approximately using analytical expressions of Kogelnik’s coupled wave theory. Then each of the grating starting from the longwave sub-range is optimized separately by using of numerical optimization procedure and rigorous coupled wave analysis to achieve a high diffraction efficiency profile with a steep shortwave edge. In parallel such targets as ray aiming and linear dispersion maintenance are controlled by means of ray tracing. We demonstrate this technique on example of a small-sized spectrograph for astronomical applications. It works in the range of 500-650 nm and uses three gratings covering 50 nm each. It has spectral resolution of 6130-12548.Obtaining of the asymmetrical efficiency curve is shown with use of dichromated gelatin and a photopolymer. Change of the curve shape allows to increase filling coefficient for the target sub-range up to 2.3 times.

In the present work we consider optical design of a multi-slit astronomic spectrograph for UV domain with freeform reflective elements. The scheme consists of only two reflective elements – a holographic grating imposed on freeform surface and a freeform mirror. The freeforms are described by standard Zernike polynomials and the hologram is recorded by two coherent point sources. We demonstrate that in such a scheme it’s possible to obtain quite high optical quality for an extended field of view and relatively high dispersion on a curved image surface. The spectrograph works with linear field of view of 76x32 mm and provides reciprocal linear dispersion equal to 0.5 nm/mm and typical resolving power of 15 000 over the UV range of 100-200 nm. Feasibility of the optical components is discussed and coupling of the spectrograph with a TMA telescope is demonstrated.

Publisher's Note: This paper has been withdrawal at the request of the author.

Multiplexed diffraction gratings were recorded in 300 μm thick layers of Biophotopol photopolymer by using peristrophic multiplexing schema. Thirteen sinusoidal phase gratings were stored in a low toxicity recording medium. The diffraction efficiency conservation of the multiplexed diffraction efficiency obtained was studied along the time.

We have considered effect of fill factor of circular binary phase grating on intensity distribution in the focal plane. A theoretical analysis is performed in two approaches. One of them allows us to describe the general distribution structure in the focal plane, but it is not suitable for solving the inverse problem. The second approach allows us to explain the fine structure in the intensity maxima corresponding diffraction orders. In particular, this approach explains the possibility of focal ring splitting and allows us to calculate the ratio of the intensities of the two rings. The theoretical calculations and numerical simulation are confirmed by experimental studies. As a result, we have shown the ability to dynamically change the focal structure due to regulation of the grating’s fill factor by means of a spatial light modulator.

We created a record of an optical field formed due to interference of a spherical divergent reference wave and signal plane wave in a self-developing photopolymer film using a He-Ne laser and Mach-Zehnder-like interferometric set-up. Due to Bragg reflections the recorded volume holographic grating acts as holographic lens and transforms the reference divergent wave onto a near-collimated one. After successful recording the diffraction efficiency of the lens is found to be 84% at Bragg angle. The lens is used to modify the radiation pattern of a commercially available red emitting LED. The effect of the holographic lens on the LED’s radiation pattern is investigated by far-field measurement of intensity pattern as function of angle for LED without the lens and with applied holographic lens.

The report focuses on special printing industry, which is called secure printing, which uses printing techniques to prevent forgery or falsification of security documents. The report considered the possibility of establishing a spectral device for determining the authenticity of certain documents that are protected by machine-readable luminophor labels. The device works in two spectral ranges – visible and near infrared that allows to register Stokes and anti-Stokes spectral components of protective tags. The proposed device allows verification of the authenticity of security documents based on multiple criteria in different spectral ranges. It may be used at enterprises related to the production of security printing products, expert units of law enforcement bodies at check of authenticity of banknotes and other structures.

True colour Denisyuk-type hologram recording of diffusing objects in Bayfol® HX 102 self-developing photopolymer has been studied. In a first stage, monochromatic Denisyuk holograms of a standard white diffuser (Spectralon) have been recorded using lasers with wavelengths 442, 532 and 633 nm to determine the optimum exposure that gives maximum efficiency. The recording of holograms from a diffusing object has the particularity that intermodulation noise due to interference between waves arriving from different object points reduces effective index modulation. A maximum effective efficiency of 80% has been reached for monochromatic recording. In a second stage, a set of experiments has been carried out to determine the adequate relation of exposure for the recording of a Denisyuk hologram of the standard white diffuser with the three lasers simultaneously to get the maximum efficiency for each wavelength. With the determined optimal exposure, a hologram of a polychromatic diffusing object has been recorded, obtaining a good visual coincidence between hologram and original object.

The 2D non-separable linear canonical transform (2D-NS-LCT) can model a range of various paraxial optical systems. Digital algorithms to evaluate the 2D-NS-LCTs are important in modeling the light field propagations and also of interest in many digital signal processing applications. In [Zhao 14] we have reported that a given 2D input image with rectangular shape/boundary, in general, results in a parallelogram output sampling grid (generally in an affine coordinates rather than in a Cartesian coordinates) thus limiting the further calculations, e.g. inverse transform. One possible solution is to use the interpolation techniques; however, it reduces the speed and accuracy of the numerical approximations. To alleviate this problem, in this paper, some constraints are derived under which the output samples are located in the Cartesian coordinates. Therefore, no interpolation operation is required and thus the calculation error can be significantly eliminated.

Interference, where the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern, has been considered as one of the most important and fundamental physical phenomenon. In optics, the statistical properties of light play an important role in determining the outcome of most optical experiments and the cross correlation between the fluctuating fields at different space time points, known as the optical coherence functions, is a quantity of great interest. Due to the fact that the wave equations govern propagation of optical coherence, it can be envisaged that the interference phenomena also appear in the format of the optical coherence function. Meanwhile, the study of propagation and superposition of optical coherence function also provides theoretical and experimental foundations for coherence holography. In this paper, we have given the mathematical expression of interference of the optical coherence functions, and have proposed a full-field coherence visualization system for coherence holographic interferometry. The interference of two optical coherence functions has been experimentally investigated which can be regarded as an extension of Young’s double-slit interferometer for optical waves. Some interesting phenomena, such as missing class of the coherence function and multiple-coherence function interference are demonstrated for the first time.

Our investigations relate to the development of new polymer nanocomposite materials and technologies for fabrication of photonic elements like gratings, integrated elements, photonic crystals. The goal of the present work was the development and application of the multi-beam interference method for one step, direct formation of 1-, 2- or even 3D photonic structures in functional acrylate nanocomposites, which contain SiO₂ and Au nanoparticles and which are sensitized to blue and green laser illumination. The presence of gold nanoparticles and possibility to excite plasmonic effects can essentially influence the polymerization processes and the spatial redistribution of nanoparticles in the nanocomposite during the recording. This way surface and volume phase reliefs can be recorded. It is essential, that no additional treatments of the material after the recording are necessary and the elements possess high transparency, are stable after some relaxation time. New functionalities can be provided to the recorded structures if luminescent materials are added to such materials.