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Photopolymerization initiated by the simultaneous absorption of two photons is unique in its ability to produce complex three-dimensional (3D) structures from a single, thick photopolymer film. Strong 3D confinement of the polymerization process is not possible in other polymer microfabrication techniques such as LIGA, rapid prototyping, and conventional photoresist technology. Two-photon polymerization also permits the fabrication of 3D structures and the definition of lithographic features on non-planar surfaces. We have developed a wide array of chromophores which hold great promise for 3D microfabrication, as well as other applications, such as two-photon fluorescence imaging and 3D optical data storage. These materials are based on a donor- (pi) -donor, donor-acceptor-donor, or acceptor-donor-acceptor structural motif. The magnitude of the two-photon absorption cross-section, (delta) , and the position of the two-photon absorption maximum, (lambda) (2)max, can be controlled by varying the length of the conjugated bridge and by varying the strength of the donor/acceptor groups. In this way, chromophores have been developed which exhibit strong two- photon absorption in the range of 500 - 975 nm, in some cases as high as 4400 X 10-50 cm4 s/photon-molecule. In the case of donor-(pi) -donor structures, quantum-chemical calculations show that the large absorption cross-sections arise from the symmetric re-distribution of charge from the donor end-groups to the conjugated bridge, resulting in an electronic excited-state which is more delocalized than the ground state. For many of these molecules, two-photon excitation populates a state which is sufficiently reducing that a charge transfer reaction can occur with acrylate monomers. The efficiency of these processes can be described using Marcus theory. Under suitable conditions, such reactions can induce radical polymerization of acrylate resins. Polymerization rates have been measured, and we show that these two-photon chromophores display increased sensitivity and recording speed over conventional photoinitiators. Complex 3D structures can be fabricated in acrylate films doped with these chromophores using tightly focused near-infrared femtosecond laser pulses. A 3D periodic array of polymeric columns has been produced for use in photonic bandgap applications. Tapered waveguide structures for interconnecting disparate-sized optical components have been constructed. More traditional MEMS structures, such as cantilevers, have also been produced. Such structures may be useful for organic vapor sensors. The two-photon photopolymerization process can be extended to other material systems, such as metallic, ceramic, and composite materials, by templating the photopolymer structures.
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