This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9353, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction (if any), and Conference Committee listing.

We report on the laser cutting of carbon fiber reinforced thermo-plastic (CFRTP) and carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) with a cw IR fiber laser (average power: 2 kW). CFRTP and CFRP are a composite material which contains carbon fibers and binding plastics. A well-defined 2D laser cutting of CFRTP and CFRP flat plates which were free of debris around the groove was performed by the laser irradiation with a fast beam galvanometer scanning on a multiple-scan-pass method. The area of laser-induced damages in the samples was observed by microscopic X-ray Computed Tomography. Laser cutting with a high speed beam scanning exhibits a clean top and an excellent sidewall quality along with a negligible heat affected zone. In addition, the laser cutting of CFRP for a three-dimensional molded sample was performed with a five-axis laser cutting machine.

Additive manufacturing, characterized by its inherent layer by layer fabrication methodology has been coined by many as the latest revolution in the manufacturing industry. Due to its diversification of Materials, processes, system technology and applications, Additive Manufacturing has been synonymized with terminology such as Rapid prototyping, 3D printing, free-form fabrication, Additive Layer Manufacturing, etc. A huge media and public interest in the technology has led to an innovative attempt of exploring the technology for applications beyond the scope of the traditional engineering industry. Nevertheless, it is believed that a critical factor for the long-term success of Additive Manufacturing would be its ability to fulfill the requirements defined by the traditional manufacturing industry. A parallel development in market trends and product requirements has also lead to a wider scope of opportunities for Additive Manufacturing. The presented paper discusses some of the key challenges which are critical to ensure that Additive Manufacturing is truly accepted as a mainstream production technology in the industry. These challenges would highlight on various aspects of production such as product requirements, process management, data management, intellectual property, work flow management, quality assurance, resource planning, etc. In Addition, changing market trends such as product life cycle, mass customization, sustainability, environmental impact and localized production will form the foundation for the follow up discussion on the current limitations and the corresponding research opportunities. A discussion on ongoing research to address these challenges would include topics like process monitoring, design complexity, process standardization, multi-material and hybrid fabrication, new material development, etc.

Almost any application that involves more than one wavelength going through an optical system has same need for color correction. Thus, the common approach is to add more surfaces and balance the optical glass in order to achieve this goal. For some applications, especially when ultrashort laser pulses (pulse durations way below 100fs) are involved, it is quite important to reduce the amount of higher order dispersion in an optical system because it is basically impossible to compensate for them afterwards. Therefore, we pursue a different approach. We present two different specially designed monolithic hybrid optics comprising refraction and diffraction effects for tight spatial and temporal focusing of ultrashort laser pulses. Both aims can be put into practice by having a high numerical aperture (NA=0.5 and 0.7) and low internal dispersion at the same time. The focusing properties of the first example are very promising, due to a design, which provides diffraction limited focusing for 80nm bandwidth at 780nm center wavelength. Thus, pulses with durations as short as 25fs can be focused without pulse front distortion. The outstanding performance of such optics is shown. The approach for the second focusing optics goes even further beyond common designs. It not only combines refraction with diffraction, but also involves total internal reflection for beam shaping and therefore improving focusing quality even further while reducing the spot size. This optics is especially interesting for nonlinear material processing.

Due to the unique ultra-short pulse duration and high peak power, femtosecond (fs) laser has emerged as a powerful tool for many applications but has rarely been studied for 3D printing. In this paper, welding of both bulk and powder materials is demonstrated for the first time by using high energy and high repetition rate fs fiber lasers. It opens up new scenarios and opportunities for 3D printing with the following advantages - greater range of materials especially with high melting temperature, greater-than-ever level of precision (sub-micron) and less heat-affected-zone (HAZ). Mechanical properties (strength and hardness) and micro-structures (grain size) of the fabricated parts are investigated. For dissimilar materials bulk welding, good welding quality with over 210 MPa tensile strength is obtained. Also full melting of the micron-sized refractory powders with high melting temperature (above 3000 degree C) is achieved for the first time. 3D parts with shapes like ring and cube are fabricated. Not only does this study explore the feasibility of melting dissimilar and high melting temperature materials using fs lasers, but it also lays out a solid foundation for 3D printing of complex structure with designed compositions, microstructures and properties. This can greatly benefit the applications in automobile, aerospace and biomedical industries, by producing parts like nozzles, engines and miniaturized biomedical devices.

The mechanical properties and microstructures of Selective Laser Melted (SLM) alloy 625 procured from different suppliers were compared. The post-SLM process of hot isostatic pressing (HIP) led to a relatively coarse recrystallized gamma matrix phase that was similar in all the suppliers’ materials, resulting in nearly identical tensile properties. These similarities obscure significant differences between them with respect to the population of second phase particles, which consisted of carbides or Laves phase. During solidification, the final liquid phase is concentrated in Nb, Mo, Si and C, and leads to L → γ + carbide/Laves eutectic reactions. Secondary particles are very small prior to HIP and their composition has not been analyzed yet, but are limited to the fine-grained eutectic regions of the material prior to HIP. During HIP the gamma phase recrystallizes to remove the original as-solidified SLM microstructure, but secondary particles nucleate and grow where their elemental constituents first solidified, leading to a non-homogeneous distribution. Quasi-static tensile properties do not appear to be sensitive to these differences, but it is likely that other mechanical properties will be affected, especially fatigue and fracture behavior. Surface roughness, large grain size, and pores and voids left unhealed by the HIP cycle will also influence fatigue and fracture. Surface roughness and porosity in particular are features that could be improved by implementing novel approaches to laser processing in SLM.

The technology of 3D printing is conquering the world and awakens the interest of many users in the most varying of applications. New formulation approaches for photo-sensitive thiol-ene resins in combination with various printing technologies, like stereolithography (SLA), projection based printing/digital light processing (DLP) or two-photon polymerization (TPP) are presented. Thiol-ene polymerizations are known for its fast and quantitative reaction and to form highly homogeneous polymer networks. As the resins are locally and temporally photo-curable the polymerization type is very promising for 3D-printing. By using suitable wavelengths, photoinitiator-free fabrication is feasible for single- and two photon induced polymerization. In this paper divinyl ethers of polyethylene glycols in combination with star-shaped tetrathiols were used to design a simple test-system for photo-curable thiol-ene resins. In order to control and improve curing depth and lateral resolution in 3D-polymerization processes, either additives in chemical formulation or process parameters can be changed. The achieved curing depth and resolution limits depend on the applied fabrication method. While two-/multiphoton induced lithography offers the possibility of micron- to sub-micron resolution it lacks in built-up speed. Hence single-photon polymerization is a fast alternative with optimization potential in sub-10-micron resolution. Absorber- and initiator free compositions were developed in order to avoid aging, yellowing and toxicity of resulting products. They can be cured with UV-laser radiation below 300 nm. The development at Fraunhofer ILT is focusing on new applications in the field of medical products and implants, technical products with respect to mechanical properties or optical properties of 3D-printed objects. Recent process results with model system (polyethylene glycol divinylether/ Pentaerithrytol tetrakis (3-mercaptopropionat), Raman measurements of polymer conversion and surface modifications using bifunctional crosslinkers are presented with advantages, drawbacks and a general outlook.

Miniaturization and higher integration of opto-electronic components require highly sophisticated optical designs. This creates the demand for freeform technologies like Two-Photon Polymerization (2PP) and new specially adapted materials like hybrid polymers (ORMOCERRs). Recent progress in the fabrication of microoptical structures using 2PP and specially designed hybrid polymers is presented. Among the structures are freeform and aberration-optimized microlenses and multilevel diffractive optical elements. These components are discussed with respect to fabrication process and their resulting optical performance. Furthermore, 2PP-initiated refractive index modification, offering high potential for energy-efficient fabrication of 3D optical interconnects, is discussed.

The three-dimensional (3D) two-photon laser fabrication techniques for metal, polymer, and magneto-optical structures are presented. Two-photon-induced reduction of metal complex ions was developed to create 3D metal micro/nano structures. Owing to the inhibition of unwanted growth of metal nano crystals using surfactant molecules, we have successfully improved the spatial resolution of fabricated metal structures down to 100 nm in linewidth. Arbitrary shaped 3D silver structures with high electric conductivity were fabricated. Two-photon-induced photopolymerization technique has been applied for the photonic wire bonding. We have demonstrated the optical interconnection of III-V based DFB lasers and photo detectors by polymer wires with optical coupling loss less than 0.3dB. We also applied two-photon laser irradiation technique for the modification of the magnetic properties of cerium-substituted yttrium iron garnet crystal (Ce_xY_3-xFe₅O₁₂: Ce:YIG). A Ce:YIG layer was epitaxially-grown on a monomagnetic garnet (<111>-SGGG) substrate. 3D fs laser scanning in the Ce:YIG layer creates the micrometer patterns of both refractive index and magnetic properties change of the crystal. We demonstrated the micro/nanometer scale patterning of both optical and magnetic properties in the Ce:YIG crystal.

Since the discovery of selective laser sintering/melting, numerous modifications have been made to upgrade or customize this technology for industrial purposes. Laser micro sintering (LMS) is one of those modifications: Powders with particles in the range of a few micrometers are used to obtain products with highly resolved structures. Pulses of a q-switched laser had been considered necessary in order to generate sinter layers from the micrometer scaled metal powders. LMS has been applied with powders from metals as well as from ceramic and cermet feedstock’s to generate micro parts. Recent technological progress and the application of high brilliant continuous laser radiation have now allowed an efficient laser sintering/melting of micrometer scaled metal powders. Thereby it is remarkable that thin sinter layers are generated using high continuous laser power. The principles of the process, the state of the art in LMS concerning its advantages and limitations and furthermore the latest results of the recent development of this technology will be presented. Laser Micro Sintering / Laser Micro Melting (LMM) offer a vision for a new dimension of additive fabrication of miniature and precise parts also with application potential in all engineering fields.

Selective laser melting is yet to become a standardized industrial manufacturing technique. The process continues to suffer from defects such as distortions, residual stresses, localized deformations and warpage caused primarily due to the localized heating, rapid cooling and high temperature gradients that occur during the process. While process monitoring and control of selective laser melting is an active area of research, establishing the reliability and robustness of the process still remains a challenge.

In this paper, a methodology for generating reliable, optimized scanning paths and process parameters for selective laser melting of a standard sample is introduced. The processing of the sample is simulated by sequentially coupling a calibrated 3D pseudo-analytical thermal model with a 3D finite element mechanical model.

The optimized processing parameters are subjected to a Monte Carlo method based uncertainty and reliability analysis. The reliability of the scanning paths are established using cumulative probability distribution functions for process output criteria such as sample density, thermal homogeneity, etc. A customized genetic algorithm is used along with the simulation model to generate optimized cellular scanning strategies and processing parameters, with an objective of reducing thermal asymmetries and mechanical deformations. The optimized scanning strategies are used for selective laser melting of the standard samples, and experimental and numerical results are compared.

Liposomes play a relevant role in the biomedical field of drug delivery. The ability of these lipid vesicles to encapsulate and transport a variety of bioactive molecules has fostered their use in several therapeutic applications, from cancer treatments to the administration of drugs with antiviral activities. Size and uniformity are key parameters to take into consideration when preparing liposomes; these factors greatly influence their effectiveness in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. A popular technique employed to achieve the optimal liposome dimension (around 100 nm in diameter) and uniform size distribution is repetitive extrusion through a polycarbonate filter. We investigated two femtosecond laser direct writing techniques for the fabrication of three-dimensional filters within a microfluidics chip for liposomes extrusion. The miniaturization of the extrusion process in a microfluidic system is the first step toward a complete solution for lab-on-a-chip preparation of liposomes from vesicles self-assembly to optical characterization.

Motivated by the desire to combine the advantages of two manufacturing concepts, namely Additive Manufacturing and sheet metal forming, the concept of hybrid processes emerged. Laser Beam Melting process with its characteristic layer by layer fabrication methodology has already been proved to be successful in fabricating fully dense 3D structures with micro sized Ti₆Al₄V powder. The presented research focuses on direct fabrication of Ti₆ Al₄V Additive Structures on a thin pre-formed Ti₆ Al₄V sheet metal substrate. In the state of the art Laser Beam Melting process, fabrication of solid structures is done on a support structure attached to a thick conventionally manufactured base plate. The state of the art process also uses a 200°C pre-heating of the fabrication platform in order to reduce the effect of heat induced stresses on the fabricated structures. Within the hybrid fabrication concept, 3D structures are directly fabricated on a thin sheet metal and the thermodynamic conditions are significantly different in comparison to the conventional process. The research aims at understanding the fundamental aspects of the interaction between the formed sheet metal and additive structure determines the corresponding mechanical characteristics. The interaction process during the fabrication exposes the alloy locally to non-optimum thermal cycles and the research therefore aims to understand the various influencing factors involved during the fabrication process. The system technology modifications required to achieve the aimed fabrication are also discussed in the presented research.

Multiphoton absorption polymerization uses nonlinear absorption of laser light to expose a negative-tone photoresist locally, creating three-dimensional structures that can have feature sizes on the sub-100 nm scale. The resolution can be further improved using schemes in which a second beam of light prevents exposure of the photoresist. However, the feature pitch that can be achieved by two-color schemes is limited by the inability to deactivate the photoresist completely. One solution to this problem is to develop a method that instead employs three laser beams. Here we discuss the potential advantages of three-color lithographic schemes and demonstrate new materials that pave the way towards the demonstration of three-color lithography.

The present work presents an investigation of transverse laser modes in Selective Laser Melting (SLM). It includes detailed descriptions of process physics and various simulation tools that were developed at 3DSIM for SLM simulation. The SLM process depends on a focused laser directed towards a powder bed to selectively melt and solidify layers of powder to create a complex three dimensional geometry. The thermo-mechanical interaction of laser, powder bed and partially solidified part involves various nonlinear phenomena leading to final part microstructure, mechanical properties and geometrical accuracy. One important aspect of these interactions is the laser beam profile. Traditionally, Gaussian laser profiles with 00 transverse modes are used for SLM, since these are the only modes readily available for commercial purposes. The present work utilizes the SLM simulation tools at 3DSIM to study the potential for the use of transverse mode lasers for SLM. The interaction of transverse laser modes with characteristic thermal Eigenmodes of a typical powder bed has been modeled to further understand the effects of higher order laser modes on SLM performance.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) offers a number of benefits over conventional processes. However, in order for these benefits to be realised, further development and integration of suitable monitoring and closed loop control systems are needed. Laser Ultrasonic Testing (LUT) is an inspection technology which shows potential for in-situ monitoring of metallic AM processes. Non-contact measurements can be performed on curved surfaces and in difficult to reach areas, even at elevated temperatures. Interrogation of each build layer generates defect information which can be used to highlight processing errors and allow for real-time modification of processing parameters, enabling improved component quality and yield.

This study evaluates the use of laser-generated surface waves to detect artificially generated defects in titanium alloy (Ti- 6Al-4V) samples produced by laser-based Powder Bed Fusion. The trials undertaken utilise the latest LUT equipment, recently installed at Manufacturing Technology Centre which is capable of being controlled remotely. This will allow the system to optimise or adapt “on-the-fly”, simplifying the eventual integration of the system within an AM machine.

The 3D metal printing processes are key technologies for the new industry manufacturing requirements, as small lot production associated with high design complexity and high flexibility are needed towards personalization and customization. The main challenges for these processes are associated to increasing printing volumes, maintaining the relative accuracy level and reducing the global manufacturing time. Through a review on current technologies and solutions proposed by global patents new design solutions for 3D metal printing machines can be suggested. This paper picks up current technologies and trends in SLM and suggests some design approaches to overcome these challenges. As the SLM process is based on laser scanning, an increase in printing volume requires moving the scanner over the work surface by motion systems if printing accuracy has to be kept constant. This approach however does not contribute to a reduction in manufacturing time, as only one laser source will be responsible for building the entire work piece. With given technology limits in galvo based laser scanning systems, the most obvious solution consists in using multiple beam delivery systems in series, in parallel or both. Another concern is related to the weight of large work pieces. A new powder recoater can control the layer thickness and uniformity and eliminate or diminish fumes. To improve global accuracy, the use of a pair of high frequency piezoelectric actuators can help in positioning the laser beam. The implementation of such suggestions can contribute to SLM productivity. To do this, several research activities need to be accomplished in areas related to design, control, software and process fundamentals.