This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9626 including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction, and Conference Committee listing.

The excitation of surface plasmon polaritons in metallic nanostructures significantly enhances light-matter interactions at sub-wavelength scales. This enables novel optical effects that rely on artificial materials, so-called metamaterials. Metamaterials are made from densely packed and sufficiently small nanostructured unit cells. The purpose of metamaterials is to act comparable to bulk materials but with effective properties that can be tailored by the geometry of the unit cells. However, recently it became obvious that many appealing applications are already in reach by employing an ultrathin layer of metamaterial. Exploiting the metamaterials’ primary optical properties in the form of their dispersive complex reflection and transmission coefficients, single functional layers instead of bulk metamaterials are already sufficient for achieving sophisticated device properties. In particular, if the unit cells change across the functional layer, a new class of devices can be perceived that shape the light in the far-field according to predefined patterns. These metamaterial layers, usually referred to as metasurfaces, possess major advantages when compared to traditional optical elements. Here, we provide an overview of the burgeoning field of research that explores metasurfaces to affect an incident field spatially and spectrally in a deterministic way to enable functional diffractive optical elements.

Zernike polynomial surface and wavefront descriptions have been used in the manufacture of projection optics for microlithography since the 1970’s. This is because the optical tolerances are so small that one cannot rely on trial-anderror to achieve diffraction-limited wavefront correction. No manufactured optical surface can be considered to be spherical or even rotationally symmetrical; they have to be measured and systematically compensated. Over the last few decades of Moore’s Law there have been continuing decreases in wavefront tolerances and a consequent increase in sophistication of deterministic optical polishing and compensation strategies for residual surface and alignment errors. Optical designs have evolved from all-spherical to the inclusion of rotationally symmetric aspheric surfaces, more recently in the form of Forbes Q-type polynomials, to Zernike polynomials that include bilaterally symmetric terms. These historical trends and their application to EUV projection optics are reviewed and illustrated with two recent optical designs.

A multi-fields optical design method aiming to calculate two high-order aspheric lens profiles simultaneously with an embedded entrance pupil is proposed in this paper. The Simultaneous Multiple Surfaces design method in two dimensions (SMS2D) is used to provide a better understanding of how N surfaces allow perfect coupling of N ray-bundles. In contract to this perfect coupling, our multi-fields design approach is based on the partial coupling of multiple ray-bundles. This method allows calculating the Optical Path Lengths (OPL) during the process, directly building connections between different fields of view. Both infinite and finite conjugate objectives can be designed with this approach. Additional constraints like surface continuity and smoothness are taken into account to calculate two smooth and accurate surface contours. Sub-aperture sampling factor is introduced as a weighting function for different fields which allows for a very flexible performance control over a wide field of view. A RMS 2D spot size function is used to optimize the weighting factor to achieve a very well-balanced imaging performance. A wide-field objective and a moderate aperture lens are designed and analyzed to demonstrate the potential of this design method. The impact of different weighting functions for the sub-aperture sampling is evaluated accordingly. It’s shown that this design method provides an excellent starting point for further optimization of the surfaces coefficients and initial design parameters: resulting in a very good and well-balanced imaging performance over the entire field of view.

The use of fluorescence in microscopy is a well known technology today. Due to the autofluorescence of the materials of the optical system components, the contrast of the images is degraded. The calculation of autofluorescense usually is performed by brute force methods as volume scattering. The efficiency of calculations in this case is extremely low and a huge number of rays must be calculated. In stray light calculations the concept of important sampling is used to reduce computational effort. The idea is to calculate only rays, which have the chance to reach the target surface. The fluorescence conversion can be considered to be a scatter process and therefore a modification of this idea is used here. The reduction factor is calculated by simply comparing in every z-plane of the lenses the size of the illuminated phase space domain with the corresponding acceptance domain. The boundaries of the domains are determined by simple tracing of the limiting rays of the light cone of the source as well as the pixel area under consideration. The small overlap of both domains can be estimated by geometrical considerations. The correct photometric scaling and the discretization of the volumes must be performed properly. Some necessary approximations produce negligible errors. The improvement in run time is in the range of 10⁴. It is shown with some practical examples of microscopic lenses, that the results are comparable with conventional methods. The limitations and the consequences for questions of the lens design are discussed.

The polishing of high-precision surfaces of optical elements like spheres, aspheres and mirrors requires small polishing tools to achieve rms-surface errors below 2 nm. This can lead to typical mid-spatial frequency surface errors that cannot be considered by standard tolerancing tools anymore but might have a major impact on image performance criteria like wavefront error, distortion or image homogeneity. In this paper we will discuss an analytical approach to describe the effect of mid-spatial frequency surface errors on distortion and image homogeneity. Furthermore we have realized a Zemax user-defined surface allowing us to formulate rings and spokes of different frequencies and amplitudes and therefore giving us a tool to do the tolerancing of mid-spatial frequency errors in Zemax directly. We will present the results especially the dependency on the position of the surface in the optical system as well as the ratio of beam diameter to surface error size.

Along the course of increasing through-put and improving signal to noise ratio in optical wafer and mask inspection, demands on wave front aberrations and polarization characteristics are ever increasing. The system engineers and optical designers involved in the development of such optical systems will be responsible for specifying the quality of the optical material and the mechanical tolerances. Among optical designers it is well established how to estimate the wave front error of assembled and adjusted optical devices via sensitivity or Monte-Carlo analysis. However, when compared with the scalar problem of wave front estimation, the field of polarization control deems to pose a more complex problem due to its vectorial nature. Here we show our latest results in how to model polarization affecting aspects. In the realm of high numerical aperture (NA) inspection optics we will focus on the impact of coatings, stress induced birefringence due to non-perfect lens mounting, and finally the birefringence of the optical material. With all these tools at hand, we have a more complete understanding of the optical performance of our assembled optical systems. Moreover, we are able to coherently develop optical systems meeting demanding wave front criteria as well as high end polarization specifications.

In this paper we describe a novel methodology for modeling the coating of commercial dichroic beamsplitters based on Zemax optical design software operating in non-sequential mode. The key aspect of this approach is a software routine that automates the generation of the coating definition files, provided data delivered by the manufacturer is available. Different formats are accepted: spreadsheets, text files and graph plots. In order to assess the validity of the coating characterization, a multispectral system was simulated and tested in laboratory. The estimated efficiency of the camera sensors and intensity irradiance were obtained. A comparison of the simulated and experimental results is presented, showing the good performance of the simulation in terms of low cost and error close to real performance, which enables a suitable method for fast prototyping.

The micro-optical array projector is a new and innovative possibility to project patterns onto arbitrary shaped surfaces¹ . In contrast to single-aperture systems the illuminance of the projected image is raised by only increasing the lateral extent of the projector while keeping the length constant. Thanks to the setup - analogous to a fly’s eye condenser – we obtain a very compact design with homogenization of illumination. The images to be projected are presented as arbitrarily curved CAD-objects. Because of its complexity, the first attempt was a chief-ray backtrace implemented into a CAD-program, with the individual projectorlets modelled as pinhole cameras. With this principle one can trace the slides for several applications like the projection on perpendicular, as well as tilted and curved surfaces. Since aberrations cannot be considered with the simple CAD backtrace described above, we used the commercially available raytracer Zemax®, controlled by a macro, working in conjunction with a CADprogram for improved slide mask generation. Despite both methods, depending on the complexity of the optical system, are generating the fundamental mask data, the paper will show that there is a tradeoff between calculation time and accuracy. Based on this evaluation we will discuss further development as well as the possibility of improvement concerning the calculation methods. The different methods were investigated to determine their advantages and disadvantages. This provides the basis for the scope of application. Further we will demonstrate simulations as well as results obtained with built demonstrators.

Efficient light management in optoelectronic devices requires nanosystems where high optical qualities coincide with suitable device integration. The requirement of chemical and electrical passivation for integrating nanostrutures in e.g. thin film solar cells points towards the use of insulating and stable dielectric material, which however has to provide high scattering and near-fields as well. We investigate metal@dielectric core-shell nanoparticles and dielectric nanorods. Whereas core-shell nanoparticles can be simulated using Mie theory, nanorods of finite length are studied with the finite element method. We reveal that a metallic core within a thin dielectric shell can help to enhance scattering and near-field cross sections compared to a bare dielectric nanoparticle of the same radius. A dielectric nanorod has the benefit over a dielectric nanosphere in that it can generate much higher scattering cross sections and also give rise to a high near-field enhancement along its whole length. Electrical benefits of e.g. Ag@oxide nanoparticles in thin-film solar cells and ZnO nanorods in hybrid devices lie in reduction of recombination centers or close contact of the nanorod material with the surrounding organics, respectively. The optical benefit of dielectric shell material and elongated dielectric nanostructures is highlighted in this paper.

Modern thermal imaging systems apply more and more uncooled detectors. High volume applications work with detectors which have a reduced pixel count (typical between 200x150 and 640x480). This shrinks the application of modern image treatment procedures like wave front coding. On the other hand side, uncooled detectors demand lenses with fast F-numbers near 1.0. Which are the limits on resolution if the target to analyze changes its distance to the camera system? The aim to implement lens arrangements without any focusing mechanism demands a deeper quantification of the Depth of Field problem. The proposed Depth of Field approach avoids the classic “accepted image blur circle”. It bases on a camera specific depth of focus which is transformed in the object space by paraxial relations. The traditional RAYLEIGH’s -criterion bases on the unaberrated Point Spread Function and delivers a first order relation for the depth of focus. Hence, neither the actual lens resolution neither the detector impact is considered. The camera specific depth of focus respects a lot of camera properties: Lens aberrations at actual F-number, detector size and pixel pitch. The through focus MTF is the base of the camera specific depth of focus. It has a nearly symmetric course around the maximum of sharp imaging. The through focus MTF is considered at detector’s Nyquist frequency. The camera specific depth of focus is this the axial distance in front and behind of sharp image plane where the through focus MTF is <0.25. This camera specific depth of focus is transferred in the object space by paraxial relations. It follows a general applicable Depth of Field diagram which could be applied to lenses realizing a lateral magnification range -0.05…0. Easy to handle formulas are provided between hyperfocal distance and the borders of the Depth of Field in dependence on sharp distances. These relations are in line with the classical Depth of Field-theory. Thermal pictures, taken by different IR-camera cores, illustrate the new approach. The quite often requested graph “MTF versus distance” choses the half Nyquist frequency as reference. The paraxial transfer of the through focus MTF in object space distorts the MTF-curve: hard drop at closer distances than sharp distance, smooth drop at further distances. The formula of a general Diffraction-Limited-Through-Focus-MTF (DLTF) is deducted. Arbitrary detector-lens combinations could be discussed. Free variables in this analysis are waveband, aperture based F-number (lens) and pixel pitch (detector). The DLTF- discussion provides physical limits and technical requirements. The detector development with pixel pitches smaller than captured wavelength in the LWIR-region generates a special challenge for optical design.

Infrared optical systems are widely used for surveillance, military and many other purposes. Image quality of such systems should be stable over wide working temperature range from – 40 up to +60°C. Due to temperature dependence of properties of optical materials and mechanical parts it is a difficult task to achieve the required stability. Passive and active methods exist to compensate the most significant aberration – so called thermal defocus. Passive compensation ways are the most attractive because complicated mechanical parts or devices are not required. The work is aimed at developing and improving of the IR system design methods. The analysis of thermoaberrations starts with analysis of possibilities of chromatic and thermal defocus correction in two and three component systems. Based on these results the development and improvement of the design method which was proposed earlier was implemented. Examples of designed systems are given. Results of the work may be helpful for designers to find optimal material combination for further designing of thermostabilized systems working in IR region.

Plastic optics has been widely used in different application. They have been facing birefringent effects during manufacturing or during certain application. Finite element modeling of plastic optics in CAD interface is done along with experimental and theoretical comparison of the specimen with the help of solid mechanics and image processing. Low birefringence plastic optics is chosen for the experiment and varying load is applied to observe the characteristics both in experiment and simulation. Low birefringence polariscope was used to measure the birefringence in the plastic specimen. Birefringence is caused due to many effects like stress induced birefringence temperature induced due to thermal gradient and pressure during manufacturing. Here stress is induced on low birefringence specimen by two point compression loading and is compared on the base of solid mechanics, finite element modeling and image processing. The results were found to be similar and convincing.

A major challenge in lens design is the presence of many local minima in the optimization landscape. However, unlike other global optimization problems, the lens design landscape has an additional structure, that can facilitate the design process: many local minima are closely related to minima of simpler problems. For discussing this property, in addition to local minima other critical points in the landscape must also be considered. Usually, in a global optimization problem with M variables one has to perform M-dimensional searches in order to find minima that are different from the known ones. We discuss here simple examples where, due to the special structure that is present, all types of local minima found by other methods can be obtained by a succession of one-dimensional searches. Replacing M-dimensional searches by a set of one-dimensional ones has very significant practical advantages. If the ability to reach solutions by decomposing the search in simple steps will survive generalization to more complex systems, new design tools using this property could have a significant impact on lens design.

The M-squared (M²) parameter for defining laser beam quality is a convenient metric to characterize the variation of the beam size and far field divergence of a “real” propagated optical beam, compared with that of an ideal Gaussian beam of the same wavelength. However, it can be problematic to use this parameter solely to characterize an input beam for propagation simulation software. Similar to RMS wavefront error or Strehl ratio, which can be used to define image quality, but do not characterize the shape of the wavefront, different factors can result in beams with identical M2 values, but very different propagation behavior. Beams that differ due to aberrations, non-Gaussian amplitude envelopes, and/or partial spatial coherence may have similar or identical M² values, but very different far-field and/or near-field intensity and/or phase distributions. The situation is complicated further if the beam encounters non-ideal optics. In this paper, we investigate a number of beams that all have (approximately) the same M². While M² is invariant for propagation through an ideal optical system, we show that when an optical system introduces aberrations, it can alter different beams with the same, non-unity M² in ways that differ significantly from one beam to another.

The Wigner function is a useful tool to analyze partially coherent light. Particularly the propagation of light in optical systems can be described by the Wigner function, while including effects of coherence and diffraction. Here we concentrate on discontinuous optical surfaces where diffraction effects can be dominant, such as the kinoform lenses, gratings, and lens arrays. To calculate the change of the Wigner function in an optical system, we treat the optical components as thin phase elements. A Wigner function describes signals in space vs. spatial frequency, resembling position vs. angle in geometrical optics. Therefore the ABCD matrix can be used to model the paraxial propagation of partially coherent light. This propagation can be computed efficiently with a shearing transformation. However, the implementation of Wigner functions for a highly convergent or divergent beam requires many sampling points. To overcome this drawback, we apply a method to remove the parabolic wavefront from the beam, transforming it into a quasi-collimated beam without losing physical effects or computational accuracy. We discuss a kinoform lens as a first example with the partially coherent light. The Wigner function vividly visualizes the essential effects such as the focal shift and multiple foci for wavelengths different from the design wavelength. As another example for Wigner functions, we analyze the lens arrays for beam homogenizing. The Wigner functions visualize the beam-shaping contribution of individual lenslets including their diffraction effects. In conclusion, the Wigner function offers a convenient approach to analyze the design of components where diffraction effects are important.

As a manufacturer of optical systems for space applications, Sodern is faced with the necessity to design optical systems which image quality remains stable while the environment temperature changes. Two functions can be implemented: either a wavefront control or the athermalization of the optical system. In both cases, the mechanical deformations and thermal gradients are calculated by finite-element modeling with the IDEAS NX7 software. The data is then used in CODE V models for wavefront and image quality evaluation purposes. Two cases are presented: one is a UV beam expander in which a wavefront control is implemented and the other is an athermalized IR camera. The beam expander has a wavefront–tuning capability by thermal control. In order to perform the thermo-optical analysis in parallel with the opto-mechanical development, the thermo-optical modeling is done step by step in order to start before the mechanical design is completed. Each step then includes a new modeling stage leading to progressive improvements in accuracy. The IR camera athermalization is achieved through interaction between the mechanical CAD software and the optical design software to simulate the axial thermal gradients, radial gradients and all other thermal variations. The purpose of this paper is to present the steps that have led to the final STOP (Structural, Thermal Optical) analysis. Using incremental accuracy in modeling the thermo-optical effects enables to take them into account very early in the development process to devise all adjustment and test procedures to apply when assembling and testing the optical system.

The design and optimization process of an optical system contains several first order steps. The definition of the appropriate lens type and the fixation of the raytrace direction are some of them. The latter can be understood as a hidden assumption rather than an aware design step. This is usually followed by the determination of the paraxial lens layout calculated for the primary wavelength. It is obvious, that for this primary wavelength the paraxial calculations are independent of raytrace direction. Today, most of the lens designs are specified not to work only for one wavelength, but in a certain wavelength range. Considering such rays of other wavelengths, one can observe that depending on the direction there will already occur differences in the first order chromatic aberrations and additionally in the chromatic variation of the third-order aberrations. The reason for this effect are induced aberrations emerging from one surface to the following surfaces by perturbed ray heights and ray angles. It can be shown, that the total amount of surface-resolved first order chromatic aberrations and the chromatic variation of the five primary aberrations can be split into an intrinsic part and an induced part. The intrinsic part is independent of the raytrace direction whereas the induced part is not.

Real optical systems are often suffering from false light caused by ghosts. In particular single reflections are critical in applications like reflected light illumination microscopy or confocal systems. The degradations of performance can be bright spots in the image or contrast, signal to noise or dynamic range reduction. Thus in these systems the suppression of first order reflections is important. State of the art optical design software supports ray trace based ghost image analysis. The automatic generation of reflex light paths is provided, but for systems with a large number of surfaces the analysis of all ghost light paths is time-consuming. Conventional Monte Carlo based non sequential ray trace sums up the reflections of all surfaces simultaneously. To achieve high accuracy a huge number of rays is necessary, what results in long computational time, especially if the distinction of surface influences needs multiple calculations. In this paper a fast method is proposed for the ranking of ghosts. It was developed for single reflections in centered optical systems. For each surface the ghost light path is calculated with paraxial and real ray trace. The ghost diameter and the corresponding illumination NA are calculated. Usually the distance of the reflex focus to the image is used as criterion to access the importance of a ghost. Here we use the power of the ghost ray bundle. It is compared with the signal strength and listed for all surfaces generating a ghost. So in one step a surface contribution of reflex powers as well as an estimation of total flux of reflected light is obtained. Due to the fact, that only a few rays have to be calculated, the method is rather fast. The accuracy can be estimated by comparison of paraxial and marginal ray trace. In the proposed method, some assumptions and approximations are made. They are assessed in respect to some practical examples, and by comparison with full brute force non-sequential ray trace. The usefulness of the fast tool is evaluated.

While the performance of optical imaging systems is fundamentally limited by diffraction, the design and manufacture of practical systems is intricately associated with the control of optical aberrations. The fundamental Shannon limit for the number of resolvable pixels by an optical aperture is generally therefore not achieved due to the presence of off-axis aberrations or large detector pixels. We report how co-called computational-imaging (CI) techniques can enable an increase in imaging performance using more compact optical systems than are achievable with traditional optical design. We report how discontinuous lens elements, either near the pupil or close to the detector, yield complex and spatially variant PSFs that nevertheless provide enhanced transmission of information via the detector to enable imaging systems that are many times shorter and lighter than equivalent traditional imaging systems. Computational imaging has been made possible and attractive with the trend for advanced manufacturing of aspheric, asymmetric lens shapes at lower cost and by the exploitation of low-cost, high-performance digital computation. The continuation of these trends will continue to increase the importance of computational imaging.

About 350 years ago a new kind of glass types was invented for decorative purposes such as drinking glasses, bowls and vases. It needed more than 70 years until the capability of these lead flint glasses was discovered to improve the performance of optical systems markedly. Color correction enabled images with resolution more than ten times better than earlier systems opening the view of researchers for new fields in the micro and macro world. Within the next 150 years the progress in optical glass production concentrated on improving quality especially homogeneity, characterization of its properties and achieving larger lenses. The introduction of glass types with considerably different compositions in the 1880s led to complementation of the glass program but not to a replacement of the lead flint glasses. Their outstanding optical properties together with their favorable melting behavior kept them being workhorses in optical systems design. One of the outstanding properties of lead flint glasses is their capability of being cast in large volumes. The size development reached a summit by the end of the 19th century with the lenses of the largest refracting telescopes. Their use as radiation shielding glasses since the second half of the 20th century led to even bigger castings of up to two tons of weight. In the 1990s the other outstanding property made lead flint glass types playing an important role in microlithography. Transmissive optics working with the mercury i-line needs crown and flint glass for dispersion correction of the comparatively broad i-line. The flint glasses had to have utmost transmission in the near UV to reduce thermal lensing as far as possible. This combination of requirements on dispersion and transmission could be fulfilled only by using lead flint glasses. It remains valid in fluorescence microscopy. Here the trend goes to an ever broader spectral range extending from the IR into the UV allowing diffraction limited resolution for many fluorescence light bands simultaneously. These outstanding properties of the lead flint glass types caused SCHOTT to keep them in the glass program and not to replace them completely as other glass companies have done. The improvements of the last two decades with respect to homogeneity and transmittance underline their suitability for future extreme quality optics with applications in medical and general research and in astronomy for large beam shaping and atmospheric dispersion correction.

Optical filter glasses (absorption filters) are for example used for spectroscopy. The filter glass absorbs the unwanted light and has a nearly angle independent spectral characteristic. The absorbed light can lead to (self-) fluorescence, i. e. the filter glass itself re-emits fluorescence light at a different wavelength - compared to the incident (excitation) light. This fluorescence light can disturb the measurement signal. In order to obtain an optimized optical design the fluorescence properties of the glasses must be known. By knowing fluorescence properties one can design a system with a good signal-to-noise ratio. We will present our measurement set-up for fluorescence measurements of optical filter glass. This set-up was used to obtain fluorescence measurement results for different optical filter glasses. For the first time we present results on the fluorescence level for different optical filter glasses. In addition the effect of excitation wavelength on the fluorescence level will be studied. Besides other factors, fluorescence depends on impurities of the raw material of the glass melt. Due to small fluctuations of the raw material used for the glass production the fluorescence of the same filter glass type can fluctuate from melt-to-melt. Thus, results from different melts will be shown for the same filter glass type.

For a long time volume Holographic Optical Elements (vHOE) have been discussed as an alternative, but were hampered by a lack of suitable materials. They provide several benefits over surface corrugated diffractive optical element like high diffraction efficiency due to their ability to reconstruct a single diffraction order, freedom of optical design by freely setting the replay angles and adjusting their bandwidth by a selection of the vHOE’s thickness. Additional interesting features are related to their high Bragg selectivity providing transparent films for off-Bragg illumination. In this paper we report on our newly developed photopolymer film technology (Bayfol® HX) that uniquely requires no post processing after holographic exposure. We explain the governing non-local polymerization driven diffusion process leading to an active mass transport triggered by constructive interference. Key aspects of the recording process and their impact on index modulation formation is discussed. The influence on photopolymer film thickness on the bandwidth is shown. A comparison between coupled wave theory (CWT) simulation and experimental results is given. There are two basic recording geometries: reflection and transmission vHOEs. We explain consequences of how to record them properly and discuss in more detail the special challenges in transmission hologram recording. Here beam ratio and customization of photopolymer film properties can be applied most beneficially to achieve highest diffraction efficiency.

Freeform surfaces are a new and exciting opportunity in lens design. The technological boundary conditions for manufacturing surfaces with reduced symmetry are complicated. Recently the progress in understanding and controlling this kind of components is ready for use in commercial products. Nearly all procedures of classical design development are changing, if freeform surfaces are used. The mathematical description of the surfaces, the optimization algorithms in lens design and their convergence, the initial design approaches, the evaluation of performance over the field of view, the data transfer in the mechanical design software and in the manufacturing machines, the metrology for characterization of real surfaces and the return of the real surfaces into the simulation are affected. In this contribution, in particular an overview on possible mathematical formulations of the surfaces is given. One of the requirements on the descriptions is a good performance to correct optical aberrations. After fabrication of real surfaces, there are typical deviations seen in the shape. First more localized deformations are observed, which are only poorly described by mode expansions. Therefore a need in describing the surface with localized finite support exists. Secondly the classical diamond turning grinding process typically shows a regular ripple structure. These midfrequency errors are best described by special approaches. For all these cases it would be the best to have simple, robust solutions, that allow for fast calculation in fitting measured surfaces and in raytrace.

With the increasing interest in using freeform surfaces in optical systems due to the novel application opportunities and manufacturing techniques, new challenges are constantly emerging. Optical systems have traditionally been using circular apertures, but new types of freeform systems call for different aperture shapes. First non-circular aperture shape that one can be interested in due to tessellation or various folds systems is the rectangular one. This paper covers the comparative analysis of a simple local optimization of one design example using different orthogonalized representations of our freeform surface for the rectangular aperture. A very simple single surface off-axis mirror is chosen as a starting system. The surface is fitted to the desired polynomial representation, and the whole system is then optimized with the only constraint being the effective focal length. The process is repeated for different surface representations, amongst which there are some defined inside a circle, like Forbes freeform polynomials, and others that can be defined inside a rectangle like a new calculated Legendre type polynomials orthogonal in the gradient. It can be observed that with this new calculated polynomial type there is a faster convergence to a deeper minimum compared to “defined inside a circle” polynomials. The average MTF values across 17 field points also show clear benefits in using the polynomials that adapted more accurately to the aperture used in the system.

Optical systems can benefit strongly from freeform surfaces, however the choice of the right representation isn`t an easy one. Classical representations like X-Y-polynomials, as well as Zernike-polynomials are often used for such systems, but should have some disadvantage regarding their orthogonality, resulting in worse convergence and reduced quality in final results compared to newer representations like the Q-polynomials by Forbes. Additionally the supported aperture is a circle, which can be a huge drawback in case of optical systems with rectangular aperture. In this case other representations like Chebyshev-or Legendre-polynomials come into focus. There are a larger number of possibilities; however the experience with these newer representations is rather limited. Therefore in this work the focus is on investigating the performance of four widely used representations in optimizing two ambitious systems with very different properties: Three-Mirror-Anastigmat and an anamorphic System. The chosen surface descriptions offer support for circular or rectangular aperture, as well as different grades of departure from rotational symmetry. The basic shapes are for example a conic or best-fit-sphere and the polynomial set is non-, spatial or slope-orthogonal. These surface representations were chosen to evaluate the impact of these aspects on the performance optimization of the two example systems. Freeform descriptions investigated here were XY-polynomials, Zernike in Fringe representation, Q-polynomials by Forbes, as well as 2-dimensional Chebyshev-polynomials. As a result recommendations for the right choice of freeform surface representations for practical issues in the optimization of optical systems can be given.

Three mirror anastigmats (TMA) are telescopic optical systems with only plane symmetry, that allow for good image quality without any central obscuration. The complexities of manufacturing and alignment can be reduced by fabricating the first mirror and the third mirror in one piece and defining a common axis of all the mirrors. It is attractive to use off-axis used aspheres and to come to an acceptable performance with the smallest number of freeform surfaces. In this paper, different types of freeform surfaces are considered to evaluate their potential. In the performed case study, the correction of spherical aberration and coma is best corrected in the pupil with the second mirror and to select the Zernike representation with remaining x-symmetry is one of the best ways to do this. The use of the Chebyshev polynomials also gives good results. Furthermore it is found, that the first mirror and the third mirror are quite beneficial to be modelled as off-axis aspheres of the Q-type. The result shows that a combination of two Q-aspheres with a Zernike surface at the second mirror is one of the most favorable combinations.

As the scientific field of the freeform optics is newly developing, there is only a small number of approved starting systems for the imaging lens design. We investigate the possibility to generate starting configurations of freeform lenses with the Simultaneous Multiple Surface (SMS) method. Surface fit and transfer to the ray tracing program are discussed in detail. Based on specific examples without rotational symmetry, we analyze the potential of such starting systems. The tested systems evolve from Scheimpflug configurations or have arbitrarily tilted image planes. The optimization behavior of the starting systems retrieved from the 3D-SMS is compared to classical starting configurations, like an aspheric lens. Therefore we evaluate the root mean square (RMS) spot radius before and after the optimization as well as the speed of convergence. In result the performance of the starting configurations is superior. The mean RMS spot diameter is reduced about up to 17.6 % in comparison to an aspheric starting configuration and about up to 28 % for a simple plane plate.

In modern laser-based ion acceleration systems, the field distribution of the focused laser beam at the position of the target strongly influences the overall characteristics of the resulting ion beam. To obtain an unidirectional and quasi mono-energetic ion beam, a flat-top field distribution of the focused laser beam is optimal. This can only be achieved, by using a beam-profiling system that reshapes the incident laser beam into an Airy-shaped field distribution in the far field. Here, we present an extensive design study of such a beam-profiling system based on two free-form mirrors. In order to realize the rings of zero intensity, corresponding to the roots of the Airy-function, strong curvature peaks on the first mirror are necessary. Additionally, the alternating phase in between these rings can only be achieved with grooves on the second mirror. These aspects actually raise the question, if the used purely geometric optical modeling approach is still valid. Therefore, our design study is entirely accompanied with wave-optical simulations to identify influences of diffraction within the beam profiling system. We find that especially the grooves on the second mirror are mandatory, not only to ensure the alternating phase, but also to realize the roots of zero intensity of the Airy-function. On the other hand, these grooves cause diffraction effects in the beam-profiling system that slightly degrade the at-top focal field. These influences are in the range of a few percent and cannot be further avoided.

In optical design with freeform surfaces descriptions of the surfaces are needed that use only few parameters and are suitable for optimisation. Depending on the merit function – spot size or wavefront error – and the position of the surface in the system, different surface types can yield different optimisation performance. It has been demonstrated by G. Forbes that slope orthogonal polynomials are an advantageous freeform description. From literature on Gaussian moments it is known that this can be achieved using differences of Zernike polynomials, which are easy to compute and implement with recent algorithms. We will demonstrate the benefits of Zernike polynomials with optimisation examples. Furthermore we present an orthogonal surface representation on a rectangular aperture based on Chebyshev polynomials. This description is very convenient when the aperture has a very high aspect ratio, or when designing a system with a rectangular pupil.

We investigate use of the anisotropic radial basis functions expansion as a means to represent aspheric and freeform surfaces. We apply this method to represent surface perturbations for the purpose of optical tolerancing. In our approach both global and localized surface errors can be modeled across wide spatial frequency range. With our method impact of structured surface errors on arbitrary surfaces and applied on standardized image quality metrics can be assessed for the purpose of optical tolerancing.

When vision is affected simultaneously by presbyopia and myopia or hyperopia, a solution based on eyeglasses implies a surface with either segmented focal regions (e.g. bifocal lenses) or a progressive addition profile (PALs). However, both options have the drawback of reducing the field-of-view for each power position, which restricts the natural eye-head movements of the wearer. To avoid this serious limitation we propose a new solution which is essentially a bifocal power-adjustable optical design ensuring a wide field-of-view for every viewing distance. The optical system is based on the Alvarez principle. Spherical refraction correction is considered for different eccentric gaze directions covering a field-of-view range up to 45degrees. Eye movements during convergence for near objects are included. We designed three bifocal systems. The first one provides 3 D for far vision (myopic eye) and -1 D for near vision (+2 D Addition). The second one provides a +3 D addition with 3 D for far vision. Finally the last system is an example of reading glasses with +1 D power Addition.

We consider using the Alvarez lens concept to perform focal length change in conventional optical systems. The Alvarez pair are a good example of freeform surfaces that are used to imprint a deformation into the propagating wavefront. In addition, we try to better understand the paraxial theory of each freeform component in building up to a composite lens system. An example dual field of view system in the medium wave infrared is presented. An inherent feature of the Alvarez pair is the axial symmetry breaking due to both the finite air gap between the cubic surfaces and the transverse movement of the pair. This has implications for the wavefront at the image plane. Having developed the first order theory one can better understand misalignment tolerances and how these produce certain wavefront aberrations. Most notably, misalignments lead to simple expressions in terms of the Zernike polynomials.

The optical design of zoom lenses for projection applications is a task which has to take many different aspects into consideration. The optical designer has to achieve a demanding specification with respect to monochromatic and polychromatic aberrations across a significant magnification range. Besides the requirements on image quality there are usually numerous constraints deriving from fixed mechanical interfaces that already have an impact in the very early design stages of the paraxial and monochromatic design. It has been proven essential to also include cost targets in the figure of merit during the design work. This paper will outline a systematic process for projection zoom lenses design. A solid specification of the design task in terms of magnification range, image quality therein, mechanical and cost requirements is necessary as starting point. Paraxial considerations are helpful to gain insight into the design problem and choose the appropriate zoom design type for further design work. Intermediate designs, which are only monochromatically corrected, proofed invaluable while considering mechanical design requirements. As soon the basic design requirements are fulfilled it makes sense to correct chromatic aberrations. Outstanding color correction requires extensive use of expensive glasses for secondary color correction. In order to find an ideal compromise between potential cost of an optical design and image quality achieved therewith, we employ tools to identify cost drivers as well as tools to simulate the perceived imaging performance. Together these tools also enable us to efficiently discuss specifications that drive cost without aiding perceived image quality.

In a typical optical system, optical elements usually need to be precisely positioned and aligned to perform the correct optical function. This positioning and alignment involves securing the optical element in a holder or mount. Proper centering of an optical element with respect to the holder is a delicate operation that generally requires tight manufacturing tolerances or active alignment, resulting in costly optical assemblies. To optimize optical performance and minimize manufacturing cost, there is a need for a lens mounting method that could relax manufacturing tolerance, reduce assembly time and provide high centering accuracy. This paper presents a patent pending lens mounting method developed at INO that can be compared to the drop-in technique for its simplicity while providing the level of accuracy close to that achievable with techniques using a centering machine (usually < 5 μm). This innovative auto-centering method is based on the use of geometrical relationship between the lens diameter, the lens radius of curvature and the thread angle of the retaining ring. The autocentering principle and centering test results performed on real optical assemblies are presented. In addition to the low assembly time, high centering accuracy, and environmental robustness, the INO auto-centering method has the advantage of relaxing lens and barrel bore diameter tolerances as well as lens wedge tolerances. The use of this novel lens mounting method significantly reduces manufacturing and assembly costs for high performance optical systems. Large volume productions would especially benefit from this advancement in precision lens mounting, potentially providing a drastic cost reduction.

In the recent years, there have been many improvements in optics miniaturization, including wide-angle lenses. However, the design of a miniature wide-angle lens (FFOV 180°) is not a simple task. In order to correct aberrations that are issue from the large field of view, many lenses are necessary. Moreover, the amount of distortion is usually very high for those kinds of designs. It has been reported that distortion can be used as a design parameter in order to control the local magnification of the image across the field of view. This control of the distortion can be used to enhance the quality of the information present at the center of the image at the expense of the sides, leading to a foveated design. By carefully adjusting the resolution across the field of view, less care can be given to correcting defects issue from the edge of the field. This sort of compromise is a promising way to release some constraints and could, for example, allow a reduction of the number of lenses in the system. The present paper explores the effect of the control of distortion toward foveated imaging on a wide-angle lens. The goal is to assess its potential for allowing the simplification of the system. In order to achieve this objective, a miniature wide-angle lens is modified into different foveated designs, each of them with different resolution targets. The starting design is a state of the art commercial miniature wide-angle. The conditions in which the system can be reduced are then analyzed. Finally, the results and findings are discussed.

Problems of designing dual band lenses were considered. The main problem is color correction in two spectral bands simultaneously because of dispersion issues between two bands for all optical materials. Another challenge is designing the lens with a few optical elements as possible. It results in complication of design dual band lenses compared with single-band lenses design. Dual band lenses design methods using two and three optical materials were discussed. All material combinations in MWIR and LWIR bands for most used materials have been investigated. F/number of single components in infrared lenses has limitation because of high f/number of an overall lens. In the agreement with this fact, we have provided a criterion for selection of good combinations. The results of calculations were tabulated. Manufacturability of all material combinations has been analyzed, and the best combination was obtained. Various designs for the best combinations have been produced. Also, image quality and tolerance sensitivity analysis of these designs was made, so we also provided a criterion for selection of good designs for the same material combination.

This paper proposes a newly developed fast measure of MTF optical system inclusive of on axis and off-axis. Firstly, we discusses how a description of an imager in terms of its optical transfer function is not appropriate for discrete imaging system when aliasing occurs, since these optical systems transform high spatial frequencies into low frequencies; then measure how efficient microscanning method could remove the aliasing effects from assigned telecentric optics and non-telecentric optics. Knife edge and slit function as a light source is employed in this measurement. Experiment with newly-designed MTF measurement system synchronizes on axis and off-axis measurement. In addition, micro-scan method with specially written macro is introduced in this experiment to eliminate aliasing effects. After simulation and experimental analysis, first, slit function as a target deliver decent MTF repeatability for this newly developed MTF measurement system which synchronize with on axis and off-axis measurement simply in two seconds after all equipment is ready and aligned. Secondly, after six step microscanning, aliasing will be eliminate to near zero in most cases. Finally, it is concluded that during microscan, there is no difference between telecentric and non-telecentric optics.

The position stability of optical elements is an essential part of the tolerance budget of an optical system because its compensation would require an alignment step after the lens has left the factory. In order to achieve a given built performance the stability error contribution needs to be known and accounted for. Given a high-end lens touching the edge of technology not knowing, under- or overestimating this contribution becomes a serious cost and risk factor. If overestimated the remaining parts of the budget need to be tighter. If underestimated the total project might fail. For many mounting principles the stability benchmark is based on previous systems or information gathered by elaborated testing of complete optical systems. This renders the development of a new system into a risky endeavour, because these experiences are not sufficiently precise and tend to be not transferable when scaling of the optical elements is intended. This contribution discusses the influences of different optical mounting concepts on the position stability using the example of high numerical aperture (HNA) inspection lenses working in the deep ultraviolet (DUV) spectrum. A method to investigate the positional stability is presented for selected mounting examples typical for inspection lenses.

Modern lens designs for digital sensors, such as those required in medium volumes for cinematography, often require the use of one or two high departure aspheric surfaces. With departures from best fit sphere of up to a few millimeters, the use of such surfaces are accompanied by a number of consequences: high cost metrology, very tight opto-mechanical tolerances and image artifacts due to the sub-aperture grinding and polishing process. Previously we examined the use of multiple aspheric surfaces with very low departures from best fit sphere (BFS) and concluded that advantages may be gained in standard and telephoto lenses, but not in wide angle lens designs¹. In this work we consider the potential benefits of low departure aspheric surfaces, as applied to wide angle lenses in particular. We review the number, placement, and nature of aspheric surfaces in some wide angle lens design examples, and look at the potential to redesign with an increased number of low departure aspheric surfaces that have the potential to be manufactured without the need for computer generated holograms (CGH’s). The use and limitations of modern interferometers capable of measuring aspheric surfaces without the use of CGH’s will be considered. In one example we examine the performance, manufacturing, and cost perspective, paying particular attention to testing and mechanical alignment tolerances.

Panoramic omnidirectional lenses have the typical draw-back effect to obscure the frontal view, producing the classic "donut-shape" image in the focal plane. We realized a panoramic lens in which the frontal field is make available to be imaged in the focal plane together with the panoramic field, producing a FoV of 360° in azimuth and 270° in elevation; it have then the capabilities of a fish eye plus those of a panoramic lens: we call it hyper-hemispheric lens. We built and test an all-spherical hyper-hemispheric lens. The all-spherical configuration suffer for the typical issues of all ultra wide angle lenses: there is a large distortion at high view angles. The fundamental origin of the optical problems resides on the fact that chief rays angles on the object side are not preserved passing through the optics preceding the aperture stop (fore-optics). This effect produce an image distortion on the focal plane, with the focal length changing along the elevation angles. Moreover, the entrance pupil is shifting at large angle, where the paraxial approximation is not more valid, and tracing the rays appropriately require some effort to the optical designer. It has to be noted here as the distortion is not a source-point-aberrations: it is present also in well corrected optical lenses. Image distortion may be partially corrected using aspheric surface. We describe here how we correct it for our original hyper-hemispheric lens by designing an aspheric surface within the optical train and optimized for a Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) array-based imaging applications.

As part of the ongoing effort of the biomedical imaging community to move Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) systems from the lab to the clinical environment and produce OCT systems appropriate for multiple types of investigations in a medical department, handheld probes equipped with different types of scanners need to be developed. These allow different areas of a patient’s body to be investigated using OCT with the same system and even without changing the patient’s position. This paper reviews first the state of the art regarding OCT handheld probes. Novel probes with a uni-dimensional (1D) galvanometer-based scanner (GS) developed in our groups are presented. Their advantages and limitations are discussed. Aspects regarding the use of galvoscanners with regard to Micro-Electro- Mechanical Systems (MEMS) are pointed out, in relationship with our studies on optimal scanning functions of galvanometer devices in OCT. These scanning functions are briefly discussed with regard to their main parameters: profile, theoretical duty cycle, scan frequency, and scan amplitude. The optical design of the galvoscanner and refractive optics combination in the probe head, optimized for various applications, is considered. Perspectives of the field are pointed out in the final part of the paper.

Holography has been regarded as one of the most ideal technique for three-dimensional (3D) display because it records and reconstructs both amplitude and phase of object wave simultaneously. Nevertheless, many people think that this technique is not suitable for commercialization due to some significant problems. In this paper, we propose an electronic holographic 3D display based on macro-pixel with local coherence. Here, the incident wave within each macro-pixel is coherent but the wave in one macro-pixel is not mutually coherent with the wave in the other macro-pixel. This concept provides amazing freedom in distribution of the pixels in modulator. The relative distance between two macro-pixels results in negligible change of interference pattern in observation space. Also it is possible to make the sub-pixels in a macro-pixel in order to enlarge the field of view (FOV). The idea has amazing effects to reduce the data capacity of the holographic display. Moreover, the dimension of the system is can be remarkably downsized by micro-optics. As a result, the holographic display will be designed to have full parallax with large FOV and screen size. We think that the macro-pixel idea is a practical solution in electronic holography since it can provide reasonable FOV and large screen size with relatively small amount of data.

The fact that every spectrometer can sort light by wavelength at the speed of light is intriguing. The field of spectrometry is a long-existing and ever-changing one. The application areas extend from optical communication to possible extraterrestrial life detection, health monitoring, environmental monitoring and quite a long list of other topics. TNO has played a role in several of these areas, always using state of the art designs and components. Some of the recent developments are described, as well as a possible path for (near) future developments. Any spectrometer consists of a telescope, slit, collimator, disperser and an imager. Each of these functions is discussed using and even pushing progress in the manufacturing and design capabilities of the industry. The progress from a two-mirror spherical telescope for a pushbroom space-based daily global coverage spectroscopy instrument OMI to a two-mirror freeform telescope for TROPOMI is described, the design and manufacturing of supergratings showing very little straylight, freeform mirrors and the use of deliberately decentered lenses is shown. A near-future small-satellite system is shown that is being built and tested as this paper was written.

The use of Immersed Gratings offers advantages for both space- and ground-based spectrographs. As diffraction takes place inside the high-index medium, the optical path difference and angular dispersion are boosted proportionally, thereby allowing a smaller grating area and a smaller spectrometer size. Short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectroscopy is used in space-based monitoring of greenhouse and pollution gases in the Earth atmosphere. On the extremely large telescopes currently under development, mid-infrared high-resolution spectrographs will, among other things, be used to characterize exo-planet atmospheres. At infrared wavelengths, Silicon is transparent. This means that production methods used in the semiconductor industry can be applied to the fabrication of immersed gratings. Using such methods, we have designed and built immersed gratings for both space- and ground-based instruments, examples being the TROPOMI instrument for the European Space Agency Sentinel-5 precursor mission, Sentinel-5 (ESA) and the METIS (Mid-infrared E-ELT Imager and Spectrograph) instrument for the European Extremely Large Telescope. Three key parameters govern the performance of such gratings: The efficiency, the level of scattered light and the wavefront error induced. In this paper we describe how we can optimize these parameters during the design and manufacturing phase. We focus on the tools and methods used to measure the actual performance realized and present the results. In this paper, the bread-board model (BBM) immersed grating developed for the SWIR-1 channel of Sentinel-5 is used to illustrate this process. Stringent requirements were specified for this grating for the three performance criteria. We will show that –with some margin– the performance requirements have all been met.

The optical design of the FLuORescence Imaging Spectrometer (FLORIS) studied for the Fluorescence Explorer (FLEX) mission is discussed. FLEX is a candidate for the ESA’s 8th Earth Explorer opportunity mission. FLORIS is a pushbroom hyperspectral imager foreseen to be embarked on board of a medium size satellite, flying in tandem with Sentinel-3 in a Sun synchronous orbit at a height of about 815 km. FLORIS will observe the vegetation fluorescence and reflectance within a spectral range between 500 and 780 nm. Multi-frames acquisitions on matrix detectors during the satellite movement will allow the production of 2D Earth scene images in two different spectral channels, called HR and LR with spectral resolution of 0.3 and 2 nm respectively. A common fore optics is foreseen to enhance by design the spatial co-registration between the two spectral channels, which have the same ground spatial sampling (300 m) and swath (150 km). An overlapped spectral range between the two channels is also introduced to simplify the spectral coregistration. A compact opto-mechanical solution with all spherical and plane optical elements is proposed, and the most significant design rationales are described. The instrument optical architecture foresees a dual Babinet scrambler, a dioptric telescope and two grating spectrometers (HR and LR), each consisting of a modified Offnёr configuration. The developed design is robust, stable vs temperature, easy to align, showing very high optical quality along the whole field of view. The system gives also excellent correction for transverse chromatic aberration and distortions (keystone and smile).

For spaceborne hyperspectral applications¹, grating-based spectrometers are of special interest due to the high spectral resolution and optical throughput that can be achieved. The classical spectrometer designs are 1:1 systems. For these systems the achievable signal to noise ratio is limited by the slit width/pixel pitch combination. One way to increase the signal to noise ratio of a spectrometer without increasing the global instrument size is to design an instrument with a magnification power of less than one. With a smaller magnification, the entrance slit is wider and a larger amount of light is collected while the image is smaller and compatible with typical detector size and pixel pitch. We presents an innovative spectrometer design with 2:1 magnification and high image quality and radiometric performances. This spectrometer called ELOIS (for Enhanced Light Offner Imaging Spectrometer) is designed with a grating atop a free-form surface. The use non-rotationally symmetric surfaces offer additional freedom for designing compact and well-corrected instruments. Nevertheless, most of the available manufacturing techniques, such as direct ruling, holography, lithography or e-beam writing, are typically applicable on simple shape of the grating surface, such as flat or spherical surface. AMOS demonstrated the feasibility of the Free Form Grating (FFG), i.e. a ruled grating on a surface without any rotational symmetry, using cost-effective approach for manufacturing blazed grating by Single Point Diamond Turning (SPDT).

The main topics related to the optical design of table-top ultrafast beamlines with femtosecond or sub-femtosecond resolution for the generation and use of high-order laser harmonics are here discussed. After the generation through laser-gas interaction, the extreme-ultraviolet (XUV) photon beam has to be conditioned and handled. The paper is focused on two main issues: 1) beam monochromatization and 2) beam focusing. The available techniques to realize XUV ultrafast tunable monochromators using gratings are discussed. The main issue to be faced when designing a monochromator is the preservation of the ultrashort duration of the pulse after the monochromatization. The different available grating geometries and some practical realizations are presented. Furthermore, the problems related to the design of the focusing section of XUV ultrafast beamlines are discussed. The effects of the focusing properties on the ultrashort duration of the pulse are considered, namely the focal aberrations due to the optical design. Some optical solutions for XUV ultrafast micro-focusing and results measured on existing beamlines are discussed.

The development of chirped pulse amplification lasers toward multi-PetaWatt power imposes more demands on laser system elements. To make the spectral band of pulse compressors wider, laser designers began to consider Littrow mounted grating setups. In this study we investigate two Littrow type configurations. The first one is roll - a grating is rotated in the grating plane by a small angle. The second configuration is pitch - a grating is rotated by small angle about an axis perpendicular to the grating grooves. In this paper we experimentally measured diffraction efficiency of rolled and pitched dielectric grating, and simulated it with two methods: numerical Fourier Modal Method in LightTrans Virtual Lab and semi-analytical Volume Integral Equation Method. Here we claim that roll is more preferable for dielectric diffraction gratings with high groove density. It is shown that the energy of laser pulse compressed by a Littrow-roll configured compressor is 2 to 5% higher than Littrow-pitch configured one.

F-Theta lenses are widely used in remote laser processing. Nowadays, a large variety of scanning systems utilizing these devices are commercially available. In this paper, we demonstrate that all practical issues lose their triviality in designing high-performance F-Theta scanning systems. Laser power scaling requires attention to thermally-induced phenomena and ghost reflections. This requirement considerably complicates optimization of the optical configuration of the system and primary aberration correction, even during preliminary design. Obtaining high positioning accuracy requires taking into consideration all probable reasons for processing field distortion. We briefly describe the key engineering relationships and invariants as well as the typical design of a scanner lens and the main field-flattening techniques. Specific emphasis is directed to consideration of the fundamental nonlinearity of two-mirror scanners. To the best of our knowledge, this issue has not been yet studied. We also demonstrate the benefits of our F-Theta lens optimization technique, which uses a plurality of entrance pupils. The problems of eliminating focused ghost reflections and the effects of thermally-induced processes in high-power F-Theta lenses are considered. A set of multi-path 3D processing and laser cutting experiments were conducted and are presented herein to demonstrate the impact of laser beam degradation on the process performance. A selection of our non-standard optical designs is presented.

ALADIN TXA is the first in the world All-Solid-State, Compact, Transmitterlaser Assembly for the first in the world Doppler Wind Lidar inside the ESA Aeolus mission. Its optical architecture is that of a MOPA, medium energy, pulsed, frequency tripled, tunable, almost single transverse and single longitudinal mode Nd:YAG lasers with 50 Hz PRF and a three years in-orbit lifetime. A brief resume of the design, together with the qualification approach and the main experimental results obtained with the two flight models are presented. The main technological challenges faced during the program development and the lesson learnt for future space All-Solid-State lasers will complete the paper.

Thermo-optical simulation is an important extension of classical ray-tracing because many applications, especially in laser technology, have to deal with thermal effects. This paper discusses an approach for modeling thermally induced surface deformations of rotational symmetric optical systems: the discrete deformation data generated by Finite Element Analysis (FEA) are approximated using a global even polynomial which is then transferred to the ray-tracing. The implemented algorithm is validated by comparing approximated data to an analytic deformation function. Finally, the benefit of modeling the temperature dependent refractive index and the thermal deformation is demonstrated using the example of a plastic lens.

For practical application of refractive laser beam shapers it is of major interest to know the desired manufacturing specifications to fabricate the particular elements so that an appropriate quality of the top-hat beam profile can be achieved. In the scope of this paper two different systems consisting of aspheric lenses are described, which efficiently transform a collimated Gaussian beam to a collimated top-hat beam. Both systems are of the Galilean telescope type. The design principles are discussed and the as-built performance is analyzed and compared quantitatively with the theoretical design. For this different criteria to evaluate the quality of the top-hat beam profile are defined. Additionally, the effects of deviations from the actual optical design conditions such as wavelength, input beam profile and working distance are considered for the as-built system. Consequently, valuable statements on the manufacturing requirements of the aspheric lenses can be made.

We present a wafer-based technology for mass production of miniaturized laser units. Heart of the approach is a glass wafer, comprising a metal structure acting as electrical contact, optical aperture and mechanical carrier of up to several thousands of flipped surface emitting laser diodes on one side, and a polymer-on-glass micro optical array on the other side. Mounting and characterization methods performed on wafer level are presented. After separation the size of a single laser unit is as small as 640 x 700 x 1400 μm³ and achieves spot diameters below 1 mm at distance of 120 mm. Performance and excellent cost potential allows for application in optical micro sensors and consumer electronics.

The Spectral Separation Assembly is a key component of the Flexible Combined Imager, an instrument that will be on-board Meteosat Third Generation. It splits the input beam coming from the telescope into five spectral groups, for a total of 16 channels, from 0.4 to 13.3 μm. It comprises a set of four dichroics separators followed by four collimating optics for the infrared spectral groups, which feed the cold imaging optics. The visible spectral group is directly imaged on a detector. This paper presents the optical design of the assembly, the mechanical mounting of the optical components, and the coatings developed for the dichroics, mirrors and lenses.

PRISMA (PRecursore IperSpettrale della Missione Applicativa) Hyperspectral Payload is an Electro-Optical instrument developed in Selex ES for the dedicated ASI (Italian Space Agency) mission for Earth observation. The performance requirements for this mission are stringent and have led to an instrument design that is based on a Ring-Field Three Mirror Anastigmat (Ring-Field TMA), a two channel prism dispersion based spectrometer (VNIR and SWIR), and a Panchromatic Camera. The Ring-Field TMA contains three mirrors (two conics and one conic with some higher order correction). Exceptional performance has been achieved by not only introducing 3rd order astigmatism to balance the 5th astigmatism at the ring field zone as is traditional in an Offner-type design but, additionally, 3rd order coma has been controlled to align the balance of the linear and field cubic coma terms at the same ring field zone. The predicted wavefront performance of the design over the field of view will be highlighted. An assembly and alignment procedure for the Ring-Field TMA has been developed from the results of the sensitivity and tolerances analysis. The tilt and decenter sensitivity of the design form is nearly exclusively determined by 3rd order binodal astigmatism. The nodal position is linear with perturbation, which greatly simplifies the decisions on alignment compensators. The manufactured mirrors of the Ring-Field TMA have been aligned at Selex ES and as will be reported the preliminary results in terms of optical quality are in good agreement with the predicted as-built performance, both on-axis and in the field.

SPICE is a high resolution imaging spectrometer operating at extreme ultraviolet wavelengths, 70.4 - 79.0 nm and 97.3 - 104.9 nm. It is a facility instrument on the ESA Solar Orbiter mission. SPICE will address the key science goals of Solar Orbiter by providing the quantitative knowledge of the physical state and composition of the plasmas in the solar atmosphere, in particular investigating the source regions of outflows and ejection processes which link the solar surface and corona to the heliosphere. By observing the intensities of selected spectral lines and line profiles, SPICE will derive temperature, density, flow and composition information for the plasmas in the temperature range from 10,000 K to 10MK. The optical components of the instrument consist of an off axis parabolic mirror mounted on a mechanism with a scan range of 8 arc minutes. This allows the rastering of an image of the spectrometer slit, which is interchangeable defining the instrument resolution, on the sky. A concave toroidal variable line space grating disperses, magnifies, and re-images incident radiation onto a pair of photocathode coated microchannel plate image intensifiers, coupled to active pixel sensors. For the instrument to meet the scientific and engineering objectives these components must be tightly aligned with each other and the mechanical interface to the spacecraft. This alignment must be maintained throughout the environmental exposure of the instrument to vibration and thermal cycling seen during launch, and as the spacecraft orbits around the sun. The built alignment is achieved through a mixture of dimensional metrology, autocollimation, interferometry and imaging tests. This paper shall discuss the requirements and the methods of optical alignment.

To increase the accuracy of earth-observation spectro-imagers, it is necessary to achieve high levels of depolarization of the incoming beam. The preferred device in space instrument is the so-called polarization scrambler. It is made of birefringent crystal wedges arranged in a single or dual Babinet. Today, with required radiometric accuracies of the order of 0.1%, it is necessary to develop tools to find optimal and low sensitivity solutions quickly and to measure the performances with a high level of accuracy.

Most of space instruments and research facilities require test equipment with demanding opto-mechanical stability. In some specific cases, when the stability performance directly drives the final performance of the scientific mission and when feasibility is questionable, specific methods must be implemented for the associated technical risk management. In present paper, we will present our heritage in terms of methodology, design, test and the associated results for two specific systems : the SOPAC-POS and the MOTA, generating new references for future developments. From a performance point of view, we will emphasis on following key parameters : design symmetry, thermal load management, and material and structural choices. From a method point of view the difficulties arise first during design, from the strong coupling between the thermal, mechanical and optical performance models, and then during testing, from the difficulty of conceiving test setup having appropriate performance level. We will present how these limitations have been overcome. SOPAC-POS is the target alignment system of the LMJ, Laser Mega Joule, the French inertial confinement fusion research center. Its stability has been demonstrated by tests in 2014 after 10 years of research and development activities, achieving 1μm stability @ 6m during one hour periods. MOTA is an Optical Ground Support Equipment aiming at qualifying by tests the Flexible Combined Imager (FCI). FCI is an instrument for the meteorological satellite MTG-I, a program of and funded by the European Space Agency and under prime contractorship of Thales Alenia Space. Optimized design will allow to get better than 0.2 μrad stability for one hour periods, as required for MTF measurement.

AMOS has developed a hybrid active optics system that combines hydraulic and pneumatic properties of actuators to support a 4-m primary mirror. The mirror is intended to be used in the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST, formerly the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope) that will be installed by the National Solar Observatory (NSO) atop the Haleakala volcano in Hawaii. The mirror support design is driven by the needs of (1) minimizing the support-induced mirror distortions under telescope operating conditions, (2) shaping the mirror surface to the desired profile, and (3) providing a high stiffness against wind loads. In order to fulfill these requirements, AMOS proposes an innovative support design that consist of 118 axial actuators and 24 lateral actuators. The axial support is based on coupled hydraulic and pneumatic actuators. The hydraulic part is a passive system whose main function is to support the mirror weight with a high stiffness. The pneumatic part is actively controlled so as to compensate for low-order wavefront aberrations that are generated by the mirror support itself or by any other elements in the telescope optical chain. The performances of the support and its adequacy with the requirements are assessed with the help of a comprehensive analysis loop involving finite-element, thermal and optical modellings.

In the framework of the design and manufacturing of a wide-field 2.5m telescope for the Observatorio Astrofisica de Javalambre (OAJ), AMOS has developed a novel wavefront sensing system that allows for real time correction of the alignment of the telescope without perturbing the acquisition of science images. The system is based on the wavefront curvature sensing (WCS) technique in which two out-of-focus images of a star are used for reconstructing the telescope wavefront error. Any deviations from the nominal wavefront error that is obtained after telescope final alignment are tracked and corrective actions can be implemented so as to optimize the telescope optical quality. The wavefront reconstruction technique and the associated corrections of the telescope alignment have been modelled and analyzed so as to validate the proposed approach before implementation in the telescope. To this aim, a bespoke coupled Zemax-Matlab model has been developed by AMOS. The model incorporates the algorithm for the telescope wavefront error reconstruction from out-of-focus images and computation of the alignment corrections in the telescope model. The justification of the wavefront sensing approach, its robustness against several sources of errors, as well as the selection of the appropriate equipment for its implementation in the telescope are discussed on the basis of this combined model.

This document presents several original OGSEs, Optical Ground Support Equipment, specifically designed and realized for the optical testing and calibration of earth observation satellites operating in a large spectral band from 0.4μm to 14.7μm. This work has been mainly supported by recent development dedicated to MTG, Meteosat Third Generation, the ESA next generation of meteorological satellites. The improved measurement capabilities of this new satellite generation has generated new challenging requirements for the associated optical test equipments. These improvements, based on design and component innovation will be illustrated for the MOTA, the GICS and the DEA OGSEs. MOTA and GICS are dedicated to the AIT, Assembly Integration and Test, of FCI, the Flexible Combined Imager of the imaging satellite MTG-I. DEA OGSE is dedicated to the AIT of the DEA, Detection Electronics Assembly, which is part of IRS instrument, an IR sounder part of MTG-S satellite. From an architectural point of view, the presented original designs enable to run many optical tests with a single system thanks to a limited configuration effort. Main measurement capabilities are optical quality testing (MTF based mainly on KEF measurement), Line of Sight (LoS) stability measurement, straylight analyses, VNIR-MWIR-LWIR focal plane array co-registration, and broadband large dynamic spectro-radiometric calibration. Depending on the AIT phase of the satellite, these source assemblies are operated at atmospheric pressure or under secondary vacuum. In operation, they are associated with an opto-mechanical projection system that enables to conjugate the image of the source assembly with the focal plane of the satellite instruments. These conjugation systems are usually based on high resolution, broadband collimator, and are optionally mounted on hexapod to address the entire field of instruments.

ATLID (ATmospheric LIDar) is one of the four key instruments of EarthCARE (Earth Clouds, Aerosols and Radiations Explorer) satellite. It is a program of and funded by the European Space Agency and under prime contractorship of Airbus Defence and Space. ATLID is dedicated to the understanding of aerosols and clouds contribution to earth climate. It is an atmospheric LIDAR that measures the emitted 354.8nm ultraviolet laser which is backscattered by the atmosphere. The molecules and the particles have different optical signatures and can consequently be distinguished thanks to polarization analyses and spectral filtering of the backscattered signal. The following optical units of ATLID receiver chain directly contribute to this function : after ATLID afocal telescope, the CAS-OA, the Optical Assembly of the Co Alignment Sensor, samples and images the beam on the CAS sensor in order to optimize the alignment of transmitting and receiving telescopes. The beam goes through the BF sub-assemblies, the Blocking Filter which has two filtering functions: (1) spatial with the ERO-BF, which is a Kepler afocal spatial filtering module that defines the instrument field of view and blocks the background and straylight out of the useful field of view; (2) spectral with the ERO-EFO, the Entrance Filtering Optic, which is mainly composed of a very narrow bandpass filter with a high rejection factor. This filter rejects the background from the useful signal and contributes to increase the signal-to-noise ratio. The EFO also allows an on-ground adjustment of the orientation of the linear polarization of the input beam. After filtering and polarization adjustment, the beam is injected in several optical fibers and transported to the instrument detectors. This last transport function is done by the FCA, the Fiber Coupler Assembly. This paper presents the flight models of the previously described units, details the opto-mechanical design, and reviews the main achieved performances with a focus on following main specific characteristics: (1) the spectral filtering capabilities of the EFO: Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) <0.70 nm, peak transmission >0.90, mean rejection <10^-5 over [320–420] nm; (2) the line of sight stability of the BF: <40 μrad in a very compact design; (3) the high transmission (>0.90) and line of sight stability (<40μrad) of the FCA; (4) the UV laser induced contamination control plan, with end of life contamination level requirements <1mg/m² for molecular and 50 ppm for particulate contamination.

The Multi-Viewing, Multi-Channel, Multi-Polarisation Imager (3MI) is an imaging radiometer for the ESA/Eumetsat MetOp-SG programme. Based on the heritage of POLDER/PARASOL, 3MI will collect global observations of the top-of-atmosphere polarised bi-directional reflectance distribution function in 12 spectral bands, by observing the same target from multiple views using a push-broom scanning concept. In order to mitigate any technological risks associated with the 3MI instrument development, an Elegant Breadboard of representative form, function and performance to the 3MI VNIR lens was foreseen in the frame of the Optics Pre- Development (OPD) activity. The optical design and the performance results of the OPD VNIR lens are presented, from the top level requirements flow-down to the optical design solution and concept adopted. The large FOV and image irradiance uniformity, the extended VNIR spectral range, combined with the demanding polarisation and stray-light requirements are the main design drivers. The design concept is based on a Galilean telescope coupled to a focusing group. The aperture stop, placed in between, is located in such a way that the system is telecentric in image space. The system exhibits a fine control of the entrance pupil size as a function of the FOV, low distortion and correction of lateral chromatic aberration. Polarisation related performances are achieved by low polarisation sensitivity and low retardance anti-reflection coatings, as well as by a proper selection of glass material properties.

The Multi-Viewing, Multi-Channel, Multi-Polarisation Imager (3MI) is an imaging radiometer for the ESA/Eumetsat MeteOp-SG programme. Based on the heritage of the POLDER/PARASOL instrument, 3MI is designed to collect global observations of the top-of-atmosphere polarised bi-directional reflectance distribution function in 12 spectral bands, by observing the same target from multiple views using a pushbroom scanning concept.

The demanding challenge of the 3MI optical design is represented by the polarisation and image irradiance fall-off (throughput uniformity) requirements. In a generic optical system, the image irradiance fall-off is a function of: target radiance distribution and polarisation, entrance pupil size and optical transmittance variations across the field of view (FOV), distortion and vignetting. In most applications these aspects can be considered as independent; however, when high image irradiance uniformity is required, they have to be considered as linked together. This is particularly true in case of a wide FOV polarimeter as 3MI is.

In order to properly account for these aspects, an irradiance fall-off analytical model has been developed in the frame of 3MI Optics Pre-Development (OPD), whose aim is to mitigate any technological risks associated with the 3MI instrument development. It is shown how it is possible to control the image irradiance distribution acting on optical design parameters (e.g. distortion and entrance pupil size variation with FOV). Moreover, the impact of polarisation performances on irradiance fall-off is discussed.

In Space & Defence (as well as in many others fields), there is a trend for miniaturisation in active optics requiring new actuators. Applications also often require the ability to withstand high vibrations and shocks levels, as well as vacuum compatibility for space applications. A new generation of small and smart actuators such as piezoelectric (piezo) actuators, are resolving this trend, thanks to their capacity to offer high energy density and to support both extreme and various requirements. This paper first presents the BSM mechanism and its requirements, the technologies involved in the design and the validation campaign results. Secondly, a derived XY piezoelectric positioning stage based on the same APA® and associated Strain Gage sensing technology is presented with its associated performances. Finally, a new piezoelectric motor based on the APA® technology, which allows the combination of long stroke while maintaining high resolution positioning of optical elements, is presented with experimental performances.

PICARD, a Sun observing satellite, has produced more than one million images during its 4-year mission. SODISM is one of three instruments on-board, whose main goal is to measure the solar limb and its spectral dependence from the middle ultraviolet to the near infrared. The very high accuracy (a few milli-arcseconds) needed to measure the solar limb with its spatial and temporal variations makes the instrument very sensitive to small aberrations. In this paper, we will present the impact of various parameters on the solar limb measurement, from simple displacements of mirrors to complex mirror deformations and thermal gradients. A complete scenario has been constructed from these simulations, leading to a model that describes the actual limbs obtained with SODISM. All these simulations will help improving future missions, by assessing the critical parameters affecting the measurement accuracies of such instruments.

In order to satisfy the strict requirements of the lightweight ratios and high dimensional stability for space mirror, the design method of lightweight structure and the flexible supporting structure of the primary mirror is proposed. Subsequently, the surface deformations of two different lightweight structures for primary mirror are discussed for analyzing the influence of the mirror weight on its surface. Finally, the finite element models for primary mirror assembly are built for calculating the surface deformation caused by different gravity orientations and various thermal environments. It is proved that the weight, stiffness and surface accuracy of the structure design for primary mirror can meet the engineering requirement.

In the last years, a lot of extrasolar planets have been discovered in any direction of the Galaxy. More interesting, some of them have been found in the habitable zone of their host stars. A large diversity of spectral type, from early types (A) to colder ones (M), is covered by the planetary system host stars. A lot of efforts are done in order to find habitable planets around M stars and indeed some habitable super earths were found. In this framework, “Atmosphere in a Test Tube”, a project started at Astronomical observatory of Padua, simulates planetary environmental condition in order to understand how and how much the behavior of photosynthetic bacteria in different planetary/star scenarios can modify the planet atmosphere. The particular case of an habitable planet orbiting a M dwarf star is under study for the time being. The irradiation of an M star, due to its lower surface temperature is very different in quality and quantity by the irradiation of a star like our Sun. We would like to describe the study of feasibility of a new kind of tunable led stellarlight simulator capable to recreate the radiation spectrum of M type stars (but with the potential to be expanded even to F, G, K star spectra types) incident on the planet. The radiation source is a multiple LED matrix cooled by means of air fan technology. In order to endow it with modularity this device will be composed by a mosaic of circuit boards arranged in a pie-chart shape, on the surface of which will be welded the LEDs. This concept is a smart way in order to replace blown out pieces instead of changing the entire platform as well as implement the device with new modules suitable to reproduce other type of stars. The device can be driven by a PC to raise or lower the intensity of both each LED and the lamp, in order to simulate as close as possible a portion of the star spectrum. The wavelength intervals overlap the limits of photosynthetic pigment absorption range (280-850 nm), while the range of the radiation source will be between 365 nm and 940 nm. The reason why we chose a higher outer limit is that M stars have the emission peak at about 1000 nm and we want to study the effects of low-light radiation on bacterial vitality. The innovative concept behind this radiative source is the use of the LED components to simulate the main stellar absorption lines and to make this a dynamic-light. Last but not least the use of LED is crucial to keep the device compact and handy. This device could help us to better understand the link between radiation and NIR-photosynthesis and could find applications in the field of photobioreactors as a test bench for the choice of the wavelength to be used in order to maximize the production rate. Other fields of application are the microscopy light sources field and the yeasts growth sector.

The 2.4-m Thai National Telescope (TNT) is the main facility of the Thai National Observatory located on the Doi Inthanon, Thailand's highest mountain. The first astronomical images obtained at the TNT suffered from diffraction and stray light problems: bright spikes spread from bright stellar images over few arcminutes in the focal plane, and the images taken during observations in bright moon conditions were contaminated by high levels of stray light. We performed targeted investigations to identify the origin of these problems. In a first time, these investigations consisted of analyzing the irradiance distribution of defocused stellar images and of identifying the contributors. We concluded that these bright spikes around the bright stellar images were due to the chamfer and the wavefront error at the mirror edge. We thus installed an annular mask along the edge of the primary mirror that fully suppressed these spikes and we quantified the improvement by observing the double star Sirius. In a second time, we identified the contributors to the stray light by placing a pinhole camera at the TNT focal plane. Then, we designed a new baffle to improve the stray light rejection. The final design of the baffle comprises 21 diaphragms, is painted with an ordinary black paint and was designed, developed and installed on the TNT in less than 8 months. We assessed the improvement on the performance by measuring the variation of the stray light signal before and after installing the baffle in the telescope structure. These steps significantly improved the image quality and enhanced the rejection of the stray light at the focal plane level. In this paper, we present our investigations, we describe the method used to design the TNT baffle, and we present the improvement in quantitative terms.

The first astronomical images obtained at the 2.4 m Thai National Telescope (TNT) during observations in bright moon conditions were contaminated by high levels of light scattered by the telescope structure. We identified that the origins of this scattered light were the M3 folding mirror baffle and the tube placed inside the fork between the M3 and the M4 mirrors. We thus decided to design and install a new baffle. In a first step, we calculated the optical and mechanical inputs needed to define the baffle optical design. These inputs were: the maximum length of the baffle, the maximum dimensions of the vanes and the incident beam diameter between M3 and M4 mirrors. In a second step, we defined the number, the position and the diameter of the vanes to remove the critical objects from the detector's FOV by using a targeted method. Then, we verified that the critical objects were moved away from the detector’s view. In a third step, we designed and manufactured the baffle. The mechanical design is made of 21 sections (1 section for each vane) and comprises an innovative mechanism for the adjustment of the baffle position. The baffle installation and adjustment is performed in less than 20 minutes by 2 operators. In a fourth step, we installed and characterized the baffle by using a pinhole camera. We quantified the performance improvement and we identified the baffle areas at the origin of the residual stray light signal. Finally, we performed targeted on-sky observations to test the baffle in real conditions.

Light sheet microscopy is a microscopy technique characterized by an illumination from the side, perpendicular to the direction of observation. While this is often used and easy to implement for imaging samples with water-immersion, the application in combination with oil-immersion is less often used and requires a specific optimization. In this paper we present our design of a light-sheet illumination optical system with a ~1μm illumination thickness, a long working distance through the immersion oil, and including a focusing system allowing for moving the focus-spot of the lightsheet laterally through the field of view. This optical design allows for the acquisition of fluorescence images in 3D with isotropic resolution of below 1 micrometer of whole-mount samples with a size of ~1mm diameter. This technique enables high-resolution insights in the 3D structure of biological samples, e.g. for research of insect anatomy or for imaging of biopsies in medical diagnostics.

We present an Opto-mechanical Door Locking System which is an optical system that combines a simple combination of a coherent light source (Laser) and a photodiode based sensor with focus toward security applications. The basic construct of the KEY comprises a Laser source in a cylindrical enclosure that slides perfectly into the LOCK. The Laser is pulsed at a fixed encrypted frequency unique to that locking system. Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) circuitry is used to achieve encryption. The casing of the key is designed in such a way that it will power the pulsing laser only when the key is inserted in the slot provided for it. The Lock includes a photo-sensor that will convert the detected light intensity to a corresponding electrical signal by decrypting the frequency. The lock also consists of a circuit with a feedback system that will carry the digital information regarding the encryption frequency code. The information received from the sensor is matched with the stored code; if found a perfect match, a signal will be sent to the servo to unlock the mechanical lock or to carry out any other operation. This technique can be incorporated in security systems for residences and safe houses, and can easily replace all conventional locks which formerly used fixed patterns to unlock. The major advantage of this proposed optomechanical system over conventional ones is that it no longer relies on a solid/imprinted pattern to perform its task and hence makes it almost impossible to tamper with.

Imaging spectroscopic reflectometry is a technique suitable for measurements of local optical parameters (thickness, refraction index and index of extinction) of non-uniform thin films along their surface. It is usually assumed that gradients of these non-uniformities are reasonably small. A new design of an imaging spectroscopic reflectometer provides the possibility to successfully measure high gradient non-uniformities along relatively large area of a thin film surface. A specialized low cost apparatus was developed to accomplish a higher resolution of surface imaging at the cost of reduction of the spectral range usable. The whole concept of the imaging spectroscopic reflectometer was designed to achieve high light throughput using only prefabricated optical components. Shorter measurement times and lower demands on an imaging camera used were achieved. The imaging spectroscopic reflectometer mentioned above was realized as a compact device with easy calibration and handling. Any monochromator with its output into an optical fiber can be used as a source of light. The potential of the device is demonstrated using samples with high gradients of thickness along their surfaces. A significant improvement in the resolution of thin film interference pattern images was observed in comparison with the same images obtained by means of an older UV-VIS-NIR device.

The position of optical plane for a space remote sensing instrument will be changed in severe launching process and complex working thermal environments, which affects the imaging quality of the remote sensing instrument seriously. based on traditional R-C optical systems designed a new type of initiative thermal controlling focusing device, which was driver by the change of thermal according to the basic concepts of thermal expansion properties, the apparatus selectively adjusting the position of the secondary mirror to compensate for the amount of defocus, analysis the main factors of affecting the accuracy of focusing device, and using finite element analysis software for simulation data, while the device for the corresponding experimental verification according to the actual working environment .The results showed that the focusing device designed to meet the required shaking volume requirement 15."

Planar optronic systems made entirely from polymeric functional materials on polymeric foils are interesting architectures for monitoring and sensing applications. Key components in this regard are polymer hybrid materials with adjustable optical properties. These materials can then be processed into optical components such as waveguides for example by using embossing techniques. However, the resulting microstructures have often low mechanical or thermal stability which quickly leads to a degradation of the microstructures accompanied often by a complete loss of function.

A simple and versatile way to increase the thermal and mechanical stability of polymers is to connect the individual chains to a polymer network by using thermally or photochemically reactive groups. Upon excitation, these groups form reactive intermediates such as radicals or nitrenes which then crosslink with adjacent C-H-groups through a C,H insertion reaction (CHic = C,H insertion based crosslinking). To generate waveguide structures a PDMS stamp is filled with the waveguide core material e.g. poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA), which is modified with a few mol% of the thermal crosslinker and hot embossed onto a foil substrate e.g. PMMA. In this one-step hot embossing process polymer ridge waveguides are formed and simultaneously the polymer becomes crosslinked. Due to the reaction across the boundary between waveguide and substrate it is also possible to combine initially incompatible polymers for the waveguide and the substrate foil. The thermomechanical properties of the obtained materials are studied.

Image motion due to satellite platform vibrations often limits the resolution and performance of remote sensing payloads, especially for the missions with high resolution objectives. Vibration blurs the incoming energy and degrades the overall payload’s ability to detect the target with proper quality. Effects of Linear and high frequency vibrations on the overall MTF are known exactly in closed-form but the low frequency vibration effect is a random process and must be considered statistically. It should be considered in system level payload design to know whether or not the overall MTF is limited by the vibration blur radius. The maximum resolvable spatial frequency of the camera may be limited by this vibration effects. Here we fully analyzed different vibration effects on the image quality and have specified the allowable image motion. Image motion velocity due to the Earth rotation around its axis and the satellite motion in its orbit considered separately. Degradation in the modulation transfer function due to this kind of movement is calculated to define the required pointing stability of the satellite. In this paper we have considered the effects of a single and double harmonics low frequency vibration on the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF). Because of its random effects, the majority of this paper deals with the statistical analysis of its blur radius and its consequent MTF budget.

Many industrial applications require a different wavelength than the fundamental output from commercially available lasers. Nonlinear optical devices, such as harmonic generators, convert near-infrared output wavelength, thus providing radiation in the visible and ultraviolet spectrum. In the present paper most attention has been concentrated on the beam characteristics of the fundamental and second-harmonic radiations. We have compared the focusability of laser beams at the fundamental and second-harmonic wavelengths.

Performance of high resolution remote sensing payloads is often limited due to satellite platform vibrations. Effects of Linear and high frequency vibrations on the overall MTF are known exactly in closed form but the low frequency vibration effect is a random process and must be considered statistically. It should be considered in system level payload designing to know whether or not the overall MTF is limited by the vibration blur radius. Usually the vibration MTF budget is defined based on the mission requirements and the overall MTF limitations. With a good understanding of harmful vibration frequencies and amplitudes in the system preliminary design phase, their effects could be removed totally or partially. This procedure is cost effective and let designer to just eliminate the harmful vibrations and avoids over-designing. In this paper we have analyzed the effects of low-frequency platform vibrations on the payload’s modulation transfer function. We have used a statistical analysis to find the probability of imaging with a MTF greater or equal to a pre-defined budget for different missions. After some discussions on the worst and average cases, we have proposed some “look-up figures” which would help the remote sensing payload designers to avoid the vibration effects. Using these figures, designer can choose the electro-optical parameters in such a way, that vibration effects be less than its pre-defined budget. Furthermore, using the results, we can propose a damping profile based on which vibration frequencies and amplitudes must be eliminated to stabilize the payload system.

Algorithm and software for cemented doublet synthesis by Slusarev’s methodology are presented. Slusarev’s methodology is based on lookup tables that allow calculating doublet radii by given value of third-order coma, spherical aberration and chromatic aberration by specific algorithm. This calculation is automated in this work. The input parameters for algorithm are desired values of third-order coma, spherical aberration and chromatic aberration of cemented doublet. The software looks up few pairs of optical glasses corresponding to specified value of chromatic aberration and then calculates radii of surfaces for each pair of glasses corresponding to specified third-order coma and spherical aberration. The resulted third-order aberrations and real aberrations on the edge of the pupil are calculated for obtained radiuses. Several doublets can be analyzed in result table and the chosen one can be imported into Zemax. The calculated cemented doublet parameters can be analyzed and optimized in optical system design software. The software allows to make the first step of optical system design fast and simple. It allows to design not only the system which is free of the third-order spherical aberration, coma and axial color, but obtain necessary value of aberration for compensation of aberrations in another part of optical system. Possibility to look up optical glasses automatically, what affects the chromatic aberration correction and aberration correction in general, is especially important. Examples of automatic calculation of cemented doublet and compensation of aberrations in another part of optical system are presented in the paper.

Aspherical surfaces are widely used in optical systems of various applications. Optical design tools (Zemax, CODE-V and others) offers various types of aspherical surfaces equations to be used in designs, but it is always a question how properly choose what coefficients and what number of coefficients should be used. It can be shown that usage special type of aspherical equation where the profile is described by dependence of the quadratic height from the z-sag. Each coefficient in this equation affects the only one aberration order. Unfortunately, such type of equation is rather rarely used in optical design tools. Special procedure can be developed for approximation of this equation to the common equation. The routine calculates aspherical coefficients for the most widely used type of an even asphere equation and finds a standard deviation of the initial surface from the approximated. Thus user can decide to use more coefficients or keep the number. The presented routine helps to find the coefficients in aspherical equation that responsible for the each aberration order and helps to find out the optimal number of aspherical coefficients for correction during optimization. Examples of aberration correction using different types of aspherical surfaces equations are presented in the paper.

Systems of augmented reality are widely used not only in military but and in civil application. Providing a sufficient size for the pupil zone, which is the area where the user’s eye could be located, may be implemented in different ways. One of the ways is to multiply (duplicate) the pupil using a beam-splitting with special coating or elements, for example with semi-transparent layers. This method is very attractive because it can provide the most compact schemes. The compound prismatic combiner which uses waveguide principle is considered and analyzed in the work. It was shown in previous work that the angles of the entrance prism and layers should be chosen in certain limits to provide beam passing through the structure due to total internal reflection, partially reflected by beam-splitting layers. This structure has mosaic structure of the pupil zone that means appearing the dark zones where the part of an image does not exist. To minimize dark zones the structure step should be minimal but the ghost images may appear. Dark zones size and brightness of the ghosts are dependent on the combiner’s parameters, so we can find optimal case as a compromise between the dark zone size and ghost image. Analysis of the ghosts’ brightness was implemented, and optimal locations of the observer’s eye and optimal structure parameters were found from the point of view of minimizing ghosts for the system with the smallest blind zone sizes.

Thermal management in solid state laser is a challenge to the high power laser industry’s ability to provide continued improvements in device and system performance. In this work an investigation of heat generation and thermo-mechanical effect in a high-power Nd:YAG and Yb:YAG cylindrical-type solid state laser pumped longitudinally with different power by fibre coupled laser diode is carried out by numerical simulation based on the finite element method (FEM). Impact of the dopant concentration on the power conversion efficiency is included in the simulation. The distribution of the temperature inside the lasing material is resolute according to the thermal conductivity. The thermo-mechanical effect is explored as a function of pump power in order to determine the maximum pumping power allowed to prevent the crystal’s fracture. The presented simulations are in broad agreement with analytical solutions; provided that the boundary condition of the pump induced heat generation is accurately modelled.

A scheme for recording of chirped Bragg diffractive structures in optical fibers based on modified Talbot interferometer with cylindrical lenses is considered and analyzed.

The possibility of constructing the optical system with an aplanatic correction of aberrations representing generally combination of the thin lens with an aplanatic meniscus and plane-parallel plate of small thickness is shown.

The possibility research multiconfiguration systems and individual configurations of the one system is implemented in this work. In the first case there is analysis of the image quality and change the settings for the whole range of magnifications, and the results are presented as the dependence of the characteristics of a linear magnification. In the case research of selected configurations the image quality analysis takes place at the same time for several configurations and the results for each configuration are presented at the same time on a graph or in a table. This is a great difference between developed software and ZEMAX and is very comfortable to compare multi configuration systems and several configurations of the one system. Calculation of components parameters is carried regardless of the system configurations number. Calculated parameters are focal length, position of the principal planes of the components of the optical system, a linear magnification for the component without moving, etc. This representation allows to make a quantitative analysis of the optical zoom-lens system quality in the whole range of its focal length.

A basic recipe for spatial shaping of spectrally and temporally partially coherent broadband pulsed fields like supercontinuum pulses is discussed. To shape these pulsed beams from Gaussian to flat-top shape, a shaping element is designed using the optical map transform method. The spatial profiles show a high quality flat-top region and the time integrated intensity profile is also of high quality flat-top shape. The spatiotemporal target field distribution is shown to bend, which is of practical importance in time-resolved experiments in ultrafast optics.

Off-axis optical configurations are becoming more and more used in a variety of applications, in particular they are the most preferred solution for cameras devoted to Solar System planets and small bodies (i.e. asteroids and comets) study. Off-axis designs, being devoid of central obstruction, are able to guarantee better PSF and MTF performance, and thus higher contrast imaging capabilities with respect to classical on-axis designs. In particular they are suitable for observing extended targets with intrinsic low contrast features, or scenes where a high dynamical signal range is present. Classical distortion theory is able to well describe the performance of the on-axis systems, but it has to be adapted for the off-axis case. A proper way to deal with off-axis distortion definition is thus needed together with dedicated techniques to accurately measure and hence remove the distortion effects present in the acquired images. In this paper, a review of the distortion definition for off-axis systems will be given. In particular the method adopted by the authors to deal with the distortion related issues (definition, measure, removal) in some off-axis instruments will be described in detail.

Optical systems based on freeform optical components offer many advantages over conventional systems in imaging applications, e.g. superior image quality, compact and lightweight designs. There are a few well established manufacturing method that can be used for the generation of freeform surfaces with low surface form error and low surface roughness, in the case of freeform mirrors e.g. diamond turning, nickel plating and post-polishing. Metrology is evolving rapidly, although developments are still needed in order to verify the manufactured surface with the necessary accuracy. Optical design methods of freeform surfaces are also lagging behind, many algorithms address non-imaging applications, but in the field of imaging (image-forming) only a few exists and works with various limitations. We compare the available techniques in freeform optical design for imaging and explore the advantages, disadvantages and boundary conditions of the different methods. We also intend to identify the most useful concepts and investigate how they can be embedded into commercially available optical design software.

The paper presents a theoretical analysis of paraxial properties of the three-element zoom systems for the transformation of circular Gaussian beams. It is required from the optical system that the distance between a beam waist of the incoming Gaussian beam (object waist) and beam waist of the output Gaussian beam (image waist) does not change during the change of the magnification of the system. Relations enabling the computation of the paraxial parameters of a three-element zoom optical system are derived and applied on an example of a zoom optical system with a continuously adjustable magnification. It is shown that the kinematics of the optical system for the transformation of a Gaussian beam differs from the kinematics of the optical system for the transformation of a classical beam and the direct application of the theory of classical zoom systems for the transformation of laser beams is thus not possible. With lasers generating Gaussian beams with different parameters, it would be necessary to design a special zoom system for each type of laser. However, practically it is possible to design a zoom system for Gaussian beams with specific parameters and the adjustment to another Gaussian beam is achieved by a suitable optical system. Using the derived equations it is further possible to solve a number of other issues of transforming the Gaussian beam such as beam expansion etc.

The opening of the integrating sphere (IS) is limited by the port ratio, roughly 4% of the sphere surface area. Therefore, there exist a tradeoff between enlarging the opening to collect more radiance flux from the LED, and maintaining the port ratio when the sphere is miniaturized. A lenses group can be designed to narrow the spot size of LED in order to minimum the volume of IS. By adopting the simulating method systematically, the spot can be narrowed from 1.5mm to 0.283mm. The corresponding volume of IS can be reduced to more 50% in size. It is possible to achieve the multichannel measurement on the wafer-level. The novel IS combined with the designed lenses group may be useful to raise the speed of the measurement of LED in the future.

UDWDM PON is a leading technology oriented to provide ultra-high bandwidth to final users while profiting the physical channels' capability. One of the main drawbacks of UDWDM technique is the fact that the nonlinear effects, like FWM, become stronger due to the close spectral proximity among channels. This work proposes a model for the optimal deployment of this type of networks taking into account the fiber length limitations imposed by physical restrictions related with the fiber's data transmission as well as the users' asymmetric distribution in a provided region. The proposed model employs the data transmission related effects in UDWDM PON as restrictions in the optimization problem and also considers the user's asymmetric clustering and the subdivision of the users region though a Voronoi geometric partition technique. Here it is considered de Voronoi dual graph, it is the Delaunay Triangulation, as the planar graph for resolving the problem related with the minimum weight of the fiber links.

All the star trackers must be composed of a baffle system to removes stray lights intensity. The baffle is designed to mount in front of the optical system. The performance of a star tracker is often limited by the stray light level on the detector. According to the space conditions, the baffle may deflect due to the temperature variation during the mission. Sun heat flux imposed to the baffle from one side and heat radiates from baffle to the space in all sides. In our case, the baffle is fixed to the satellite structure by four titanium screw. A finite element model has been used to modeling the baffle and temperature distribution and deflection is obtained in worst cold and hot conditions. Results show that in the worst cold condition, baffle is deflected symmetrically whereas in hot case, deflection is not symmetric and the side exposed to the sun light is elongated. Using ray tracing methods along with Monte Carlo algorithm, the baffle efficiency is obtained and compared for both cases. Results show that baffle deflections are not so extreme to force us to cover it with the MLI.

We have developed a analitical method based on the general theory of modulation of Whitham7 where the variational method is a particular case to generate nonlinear optical pulses and Optical Solitons. We show the equivalence of the solutions of the Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation (NLS) and the solutions derived from the method proposed here, demonstrating that these solutions lead to the Optical Solitons. We developed a new method to check the stability of the NLS equations. We show that the Optical Solitons obtained from a Lagrangian density can propagate through a waveguide such as an optical fiber, and are equivalent to Optical Solitons guided by an optical fiber. To analyze the stability of system solutions we have expanded the Lagrangian density and from the expanded Lagrangian we obtain the system equations of motion and restrict the solutions that have oscillating behavior when disturbed. The stability analysis can also be performed by expansion of the optical field as it is presented in section 4. Thus obtain a self-value equation whose spectrum is positive indicating that the solutions with the characteristics of reproducing the NLS solutions are stable. This method can be used and implemented computationally for linear stability analysis of any optical system or any NLS solution. Another important aspect of our research has been the discovery of a relationship between the Lagrangian of optical system and the optical pulse propagating through a waveguide. The paper is organized as follows. Section 1 is devoted to a quick presentation of NLS systems. The section 2 provides a description of modeling of an optical network. Section 3 and 4 are devoted to the presentation of the proposed method for obtaining this class of solutions and their stability analysis. Section 5 presents conclusions and comments and section 6 provides references.

In this work we present a method of investigation of nonlinear optical beams generated from non-Hermitian optical systems¹ . This method can be applied in the development of optical filters and optical sensors to process, analyze and choose the passband of the propagation modes of an optical pulse from an non-Hermitian optical system. Non-Hermitian optical systems can be used to develop optical fiber sensors that suppress certain propagation modes of optical pulses that eventually behave as quantum noise. Such systems are described by the Nonlinear Schrödinger-like Equation with Parity-Time (PT) Symmetric Optical Potentials. There are optical fiber sensors that due to high laser intensity and frequency can produce quantum noise, such as Raman and Brillouin scattering. However, the optical fiber, for example, can be designed so that its geometry suppress certain propagation modes of the beam. We apply some results of non- Hermitian optical systems with PT symmetry to simulate optical lattice by a appropriate potential function, which among other applications, can naturally suppress certain propagation modes of an optical beam propagating through a waveguide. In other words, the optical system is modeled by a potential function in the Nonlinear Schrödinger-like Equation that one relates with the geometric aspects of the wave guides and with the optical beam interacting with the waveguide material. The paper is organized as follows: sections 1 and 2 present a brief description about nonlinear optical systems and non-Hermitian optical systems with PT symmetry. Section 3 presents a description of the dynamics of nonlinear optical pulses propagating through optical networks described by a optical potential non-Hermitian. Sections 4 and 5 present a general description of this non-Hermitian optical systems and how to get them from a more general model. Section 6 presents some conclusions and comment and the final section presents the references. Begin the abstract two lines below author names and addresses.

Near-to-eye (NTE) projection is the major approach to "Smart Glasses", which have gained lot of traction during the last few years. Micro-displays based on organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) achieve high optical performance with excellent contrast ratio and large dynamic range at low power consumption, making them suitable for such application. In state-of-the-art applications the micro-display typically acts as a purely unidirectional output device. With the integration of an additional image sensor, the functionality of the micro-display can be extended to a bidirectional optical input/output device, aiming for implementation of eye-tracking capabilities in see-through (ST-)NTE applications to achieve gaze-based human-display-interaction. This paper describes a new bi-directional OLED microdisplay featuring SVGA resolution for both image display and acquisition, and its implementation with see-through NTE optics.

The JUICE (JUpiter ICy moons Explorer) satellite of the European Space Agency (ESA) is dedicated to the detailed study of Jupiter and its moons. Among the whole instrument suite, JANUS (Jovis, Amorum ac Natorum Undique Scrutator) is the camera system of JUICE designed for imaging at visible wavelengths. It will conduct an in-depth study of Ganymede, Callisto and Europa, and explore most of the Jovian system and Jupiter itself, performing, in the case of Ganymede, a global mapping of the satellite with a resolution of 400 m/px. The optical design chosen to meet the scientific goals of JANUS is a three mirror anastigmatic system in an off-axis configuration. To ensure that the achieved contrast is high enough to observe the features on the surface of the satellites, we also performed a preliminary stray light analysis of the telescope. We provide here a short description of the optical design and we present the procedure adopted to evaluate the stray-light expected during the mapping phase of the surface of Ganymede. We also use the results obtained from the first run of simulations to optimize the baffle design.