KEYWORDS: Data acquisition, Solar cells, Solar energy, Reliability, Photovoltaics, Analytical research, Sensors, Silicon solar cells, Temperature metrology, Humidity
The Tucson Electric Power (TEP)/University of Arizona AzRISE (Arizona Research Institute for Solar Energy) solar test yard is continuing efforts to improve standardization and data acquisition reliability throughout the facility. Data reliability is ensured through temperature-insensitive data acquisition devices with battery backups in the upgraded test yard. Software improvements allow for real-time analysis of collected data, while uploading to a web server. Sample data illustrates high fidelity monitoring of the burn-in period of a polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic module test string with no data failures over 365 days of data collection. In addition to improved DAQ systems, precision temperature monitoring has been implemented so that PV module backside temperatures are routinely obtained. Weather station data acquired at the test yard provides local ambient temperature, humidity, wind speed, and irradiance measurements that have been utilized to enable characterization of PV module performance over an extended test period
Electroluminescence imaging can be used as a non-invasive method to spatially assess performance degradation in photovoltaic (PV) modules. Cells, or regions of cells, that do not produce an infra-red luminescence signal under electrical excitation indicate potential damage in the module. In this study, an Andor iKon-M camera and an image acquisition tool provided by Andor have been utilized to obtain electroluminescent images of a full-sized multicrystalline PV module at regular intervals throughout an accelerated lifecycle test (ALC) performed in a large-scale environmental degradation chamber. Computer aided digital image analysis methods were then used to automate degradation assessment in the modules. Initial preprocessing of the images was designed to remove both background noise and barrel distortion in the image data. Image areas were then mapped so that changes in luminescent intensity across both individual cells and the full module could be identified. Two primary techniques for image analysis were subsequently investigated. In the first case, pixel intensity distributions were evaluated over each individual PV cell and changes to the intensities of the cells over the course of an ALC test were evaluated. In the second approach, intensity line scans of each of the cells in a PV module were performed and variations in line scan data were identified during the module ALC test. In this report, both the image acquisition and preprocessing technique and the contribution of each image analysis approach to an assessment of degradation behavior will be discussed.
KEYWORDS: Solar cells, Thin films, Thin film solar cells, Photovoltaics, Analytical research, Solar energy, Crystals, Energy efficiency, Humidity, Control systems
Thin-film solar cells normally have the shortest energy payback time due to their simpler mass-production process compared to polycrystalline-Si photovoltaic (PV) modules, despite the fact that crystalline-Si-based technology typically has a longer total lifetime and a higher initial power conversion efficiency. For both types of modules, significant aging occurs during the first two years of usage with slower long-term aging over the module lifetime. The PV lifetime and the return-on-investment for local PV system installations rely on long-term device performance. Understanding the efficiency degradation behavior under a given set of environmental conditions is, therefore, a primary goal for experimental research and economic analysis. In the present work, in-situ measurements of key electrical characteristics (J, V, Pmax, etc.) in polycrystalline-Si and CdTe thin-film PV modules have been analyzed. The modules were subjected to identical environmental conditions, representative of southern Arizona, in a full-scale, industrial-standard, environmental degradation chamber, equipped with a single-sun irradiance source, temperature, and humidity controls, and operating an accelerated lifecycle test (ALT) sequence. Initial results highlight differences in module performance with environmental conditions, including temperature de-rating effects, for the two technologies. Notably, the thin-film CdTe PV module was shown to be approximately 15% less sensitive to ambient temperature variation. After exposure to a seven-month equivalent compressed night-day weather cycling regimen the efficiency degradation rates of both PV technology types were obtained and will be discussed.
Polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) modules have the advantage of lower manufacturing cost as compared to their monocrystalline counterparts, but generally exhibit both lower initial module efficiencies and more significant early-stage efficiency degradation than do similar monocrystalline PV modules. For both technologies, noticeable deterioration in power conversion efficiency typically occurs over the first two years of usage. Estimating PV lifetime by examining the performance degradation behavior under given environmental conditions is, therefore, one of continual goals for experimental research and economic analysis.
In the present work, accelerated lifecycle testing (ALT) on three polycrystalline PV technologies was performed in a full-scale, industrial-standard environmental chamber equipped with single-sun irradiance capability, providing an illumination uniformity of 98% over a 2 x 1.6m area. In order to investigate environmental aging effects, timedependent PV performance (I-V characteristic) was evaluated over a recurring, compressed day-night cycle, which simulated local daily solar insolation for the southwestern United States, followed by dark (night) periods. During a total test time of just under 4 months that corresponded to a year equivalent exposure on a fielded module, the temperature and humidity varied in ranges from 3°C to 40°C and 5% to 85% based on annual weather profiles for Tucson, AZ. Removing the temperature de-rating effect that was clearly seen in the data enabled the computation of normalized efficiency degradation with time and environmental exposure. Results confirm the impact of environmental conditions on the module long-term performance. Overall, more than 2% efficiency degradation in the first year of usage was observed for all thee polycrystalline Si solar modules. The average 5-year degradation of each PV technology was estimated based on their determined degradation rates.
KEYWORDS: Photovoltaics, Data backup, Solar energy, Reliability, Solar cells, Data acquisition, Temperature metrology, Data storage, Environmental sensing, Resistors
The University of Arizona AzRISE (Arizona Research Institute for Solar Energy) and Tucson Electric Power solar test yard is currently undergoing renovations to upgrade and standardize the data acquisition capabilities throughout the yard. Test yard improvements have enabled increased data collection reliability through state-of-the-art and environmentallyrobust data logging and real-time analysis. Enhanced capabilities include 10 msec max. data resolution, precision PV backside temperature monitoring of both individual and strings of modules, measurement of both AC and DC outputs as well as GHI and POA irradiance, active data backup to eliminate data intermittency, and robust Ethernet connectivity for data collection. An on-site weather station, provides wind speed and direction, relative humidity, and air temperature data. The information collected is accessed remotely via web server and includes raw performance and environmental conditions as well as extracted figures of performance for systems under test. Complementing the UA’s existing accelerated environmental-testing chamber, the new test yard acquisition capabilities have enabled high fidelity system and sub-system-level operational testing under a range of field-level test conditions. The combined facilities, thus, provide a full-spectrum testing resource for photovoltaic performance and degradation analysis. Specific measurement characteristics and sample data collected from a polysilicon module test string are utilized to illustrate test yard capabilities.
Lifecycle degradation testing of photovoltaic (PV) modules in accelerated-degradation chambers can enable the prediction both of PV performance lifetimes and of return-on-investment for installations of PV systems. With degradation results strongly dependent on chamber test parameters, the validity of such studies relative to fielded, installed PV systems must be determined. In the present work, accelerated aging of a 250 W polycrystalline silicon module is compared to real-time performance degradation in a similar polycrystalline-silicon, fielded, PV technology that has been operating since October 2013. Investigation of environmental aging effects are performed in a full-scale, industrial-standard environmental chamber equipped with single-sun irradiance capability providing illumination uniformity of 98% over a 2 x 1.6 m area. Time-dependent, photovoltaic performance (J-V) is evaluated over a recurring, compressed night-day cycle providing representative local daily solar insolation for the southwestern United States, followed by dark (night) cycling. This cycle is synchronized with thermal and humidity environmental variations that are designed to mimic, as closely as possible, test-yard conditions specific to a 12 month weather profile for a fielded system in Tucson, AZ. Results confirm the impact of environmental conditions on the module long-term performance. While the effects of temperature de-rating can be clearly seen in the data, removal of these effects enables the clear interpretation of module efficiency degradation with time and environmental exposure. With the temperature-dependent effect removed, the normalized efficiency is computed and compared to performance results from another panel of similar technology that has previously experienced identical climate changes in the test yard. Analysis of relative PV module efficiency degradation for the chamber-tested system shows good comparison to the field-tested system with ~2.5% degradation following an equivalent year of testing.
An investigation of microindenter-induced crack evolution with independent variation of both temperature and relative humidity has been pursued in PV-grade Si wafers. Under static tensile strain conditions, an increase in subcritical crack elongation with increasing atmospheric water content was observed. To provide further insight into the potential physical and chemical conditions at the microcrack tip, micro-Raman measurements were performed. Preliminary results confirm a spatial variation in the frequency of the primary Si vibrational resonance within the cracktip region, associated with local stress state, whose magnitude is influenced by environmental conditions during the period of applied static strain. The experimental effort was paired with molecular dynamics (MD) investigations of microcrack evolution in single-crystal Si to furnish additional insight into mechanical contributions to crack elongation. The MD results demonstrate that crack-tip energetics and associated crack elongation velocity and morphology are intimately related to the crack and applied strain orientations with respect to the principal crystallographic axes. The resulting elastic strain energy release rate and the stress-strain response of the Si under these conditions form the basis for preliminary micro-scale peridynamics (PD) simulations of microcrack development under constant applied strain. These efforts will be integrated with the experimental results to further inform the mechanisms contributing to this important degradation mode in Si-based photovoltaics.
KEYWORDS: Solar cells, Humidity, Silicon, Solar energy, Photovoltaics, Lamps, Temperature metrology, Environmental sensing, Manufacturing, Energy conversion efficiency
Lifecycle testing of full-scale photovoltaic (PV) modules was conducted in a large-sized, accelerated-degradation chamber in our labs that enables full-solar-spectrum irradiance, temperature, and humidity control. In-situ measurement of both polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicon PV module energy conversion characteristics were examined under environmental lifecycle conditions representative of Tucson, AZ. Specifically, the performance degradation of a Hanwha 295 W polycrystalline PV module and of a SunPower 320 W monocrystalline PV module were evaluated and compared. Results indicate that the initial efficiency of the polycrystalline module and the subsequent annual degradation occurred within expected ranges for that system. In contrast, the single-crystal module exhibited both a significant decrease in PV module efficiency during the test cycle, and early evidence of environmentally-induced materials degradation across the module. The temperature and time-dependence of PV module behavior were extracted to provide insight into early-stage performance degradation under conditions approximating field-relevant environments.
KEYWORDS: Silicon, Semiconducting wafers, Humidity, Scanning electron microscopy, Photovoltaics, Solar cells, Performance modeling, Systems modeling, Reliability, Solar energy
The impact of combined environment conditions (mechanical state, temperature, and relative humidity) on microcrack propagation characteristics in p-type monocrystalline, photovoltaic-grade Si wafers was examined. A four-point bend apparatus was used to impose static strain conditions in 280 micron thick monocrystalline Si wafers containing microindentation-initiated crack centers. The specimen under test was simultaneously subjected to varied temperature and relative humidity conditions within a controlled environment chamber. Microcrack length was monitored after exposure to two sets of temperature and relative humidity conditions (i.e. 20℃ and 33%, 40℃ and 60% respectively) using scanning electron microscopy. Two primary stages of crack elongation behavior were observed under both of the combined environment conditions. Specifically, an early-time, more rapid growth period occurred, followed by more limited crack growth at later times. The deceleration of crack propagation is consistent with stress relaxation accompanying crack elongation under the constant strain conditions imposed. In general, an increase in the average microcrack propagation rate within both growth rate ranges and in the final overall change in average crack length was observed under elevated temperature and humidity conditions. These findings support the probable role of local crack-tip environment on microcrack evolution.
The impact of CdTe nanoscale semiconductor spectral sensitizers on the energy conversion efficiency of a poly-(hexylthiophene) (P3HT)-ZnO thin film (TF) photovoltaic (PV) cell was examined utilizing a one-dimensional computational model (Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator) (SCAPS). Output characteristics (quantum efficiency spectra, current-voltage characteristics) of TF PV cells containing the CdTe phase embedded within the n-type (ZnO) region of the junction were investigated with the modeling parameters derived from previous experimental studies of the component materials. The study focused on the influence of the spatial position of the CdTe region, relative to the P3HT-ZnO heterojunction, on the spectral characteristics of the energy conversion efficiency of the device. The contribution of this sensitizer phase to energy conversion was confirmed and the magnitude of the effect was found to increase as the semiconductor nanophase region was moved to within 20 nm of the heterojunction.
The optical absorption of a transparent conductive oxide (TCO), which is often used as the basis for junction or contact
layers in thin film photovoltaics, can be tailored by incorporating a nanophase semiconductor (SC) component. Using a,
dual-source, sequential R.F. magnetron sputter deposition technique, we manipulate the optical and electronic properties
of SC:TCO composites by varying the local and extended nanophase assembly and composition. The present study
explores nanocomposite systems based on Ge:ZnO and Ge:ITO. The impact of host material (ITO vs. ZnO) on the
evolution of nanostructure is investigated. Heat treatment of the as-deposited films results in an increased crystallinity of
the TCO and SC components, confirmed by X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy studies. The presence of the SC
phase is found to influence TCO grain growth and crystallographic orientation, and modification of the SC phase
distribution is coincident with the morphological development of the TCO phase in both composite systems. Upon heattreatment,
the high-energy optical absorption edge of the nanocomposite is blue-shifted compared to that of the
corresponding as-deposited material. This indicates the development of quantum-confinement conditions for
photocarriers within the Ge phase which leads to an increased energy gap over that expected for the more bulk-like, asdeposited
Ge material. Under the deposition and thermal treatment conditions used in the present study, the spectral
absorption response is consistent between the ZnO and ITO-based thin films examined. This suggests that carrier
confinement conditions are mediated by the development of similar Ge-phase local spatial extent and Ge:TCO interfacial
structures in both systems, regardless of TCO identity.
The use of photosensitive materials for the development of integrated, refractive-index structures supporting telecom, remote sensing, and varied optical beam manipulation applications is well established. Our investigations of photosensitive phenomena in polysilanes, however, have been motivated by the desire to configure, or program, the photonic device function immediately prior to use. Such an operational mode imposes requirements on wavelength sensitivity, incident fluence and environmental conditions that are not typical of more conventional applications of photosensitive material. The present paper focuses on our efforts to understand and manipulate photosensitivity in polysilane thin films under different excitation wavelengths, local atmospheric compositions and thermal history in this context. We find that the photoresponse can be influenced through the control of such optical exposure conditions, thereby influencing the magnitude of the photoinduced refractive-index change attained.
Germanosilicate glasses exhibit a significant photosensitive response which has been linked to the presence of oxygen- deficient germanium point defects in the glass structure. Based on this correlation, highly photosensitive thin films have been engineered which demonstrate the largest reported ultraviolet-induced refractive index perturbations ((Delta) n) in an as-synthesized material. Our thin-film fabrication process avoids the use of hydrogen sensitizing treatments and, thus, yields stable films which retain their predisposition for large photosensitivity for over one year of storage. Understanding the nature of the defects in such films and their relationship to charge trapping and enhanced photosensitivity is of paramount importance in designing and optimizing the materials. Toward this end, our films have been studied using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), capacitance-voltage, and optical bleaching and absorption spectroscopies. We find experimental evidence suggesting a model in which a change in spin state and charge state of isolated paramagnetic neutral Ge dangling bonds form either diamagnetic positively or negatively charged Ge sites which are largely responsible for the charge trapping and photosensitivity in these thin films. We present experimental data and theoretical modeling to support our defect model and to show the relevance of the work.
The optical performance of refractive index structures induced in photosensitive (PS) glasses ultimately depends on the index modulation depth attainable. In germanosilicate materials, the photosensitive response is linked to the presence of oxygen-deficient germanium point defect centers. Prior efforts to increase PS in these materials, e.g., hydrogen loading, rely on a chemical reduction of the glass structure to enhance the population of oxygen deficient centers and thus increase the saturated refractive index change. We have previously reported the development of highly photosensitive, as-deposited germanosilicate glass films through reactive atmosphere (O2Ar) sputtering from a Ge/Si alloy target. The present work details our investigation of the effect of substrate temperature during deposition on the material structure and propensity for photosensitivity. Using optical absorption/bleaching, Raman, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and selective charge injection techniques we show that the predominate defect states responsible for the PS response can be varied through substrate temperature control. We find that two regimes of photosensitive behavior can be accessed which exhibit dramatically different UV-bleaching characteristics. Thus, the corresponding dispersion of the refractive index change as well as its magnitude can be controlled using our synthesis technique. Tentative defect models for the photosensitive process in materials deposited at both ambient temperature and at elevated substrate temperatures are presented.
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