In this paper, a validated procedure to replace the protective front-window of a commercial digital micro-mirror device (DMD) from Texas Instruments (TI) to allow its use over a large spectral range is presented. This reworking process was required since the original window employed for encapsulation is made from glass with an anti-reflection coating designed for a specific spectral range, incompatible with the required large spectral range of the demonstrator under development. In addition, a characterisation of the DMD performance in terms of spectral transmission, as well as switching time and pointing stability is presented. The motivation behind this study lies within the development of a novel instrument in the frame of the EU H2020 funded SURPRISE project. The project aims at developing a super-resolved compressive imager operating in the visible-near infrared (VNIR) and mid-wave infrared (MWIR) spectral ranges for space applications, especially targeting Earth Observation. The instrument concept is based on the use of a spatial light modulator (SLM), in this case a digital micro-mirror device (DMD), as a core element of its architecture to enable data acquisition and compression in single step based on the compressive sensing principle. Even though one of the long-term objectives is to develop a European-based SLM solution, a commercial SLM component has been selected for the demonstrator This allows reducing the development cost and initiating the development of the demonstrator in parallel to the development of a European-based solution.
Earth Observation (EO) systems are generating an ever-increasing amount of data to be handled on board yet with limited resources, which sometimes hinders a full exploitation of the information content. In this paper, we present a demonstrator of a super-resolved compressive imager operating in whiskbroom mode in the Visible-Near Infrared (VISNIR) and Medium Infrared (MIR) spectral ranges. The demonstrator, which is under development in the frame of the EU H2020 funded SURPRISE project, is based on the use of a Digital MicroMirror Device (DMD) as a core element of its architecture and it is inspired by a single-pixel camera in order to avoid the use of large focal plane arrays. The demonstrator has 10 channels in the VNIR and two channels in the MIR and it can reach a super-resolution factor from 4 x 4 to 32 x 32, that is the ratio between the number of pixels of the image reconstructed at the end of the process and the number of pixels of the detector. Besides, on the grounds of the results obtained by image reconstruction tests on simulated datasets by using Deep Learning based algorithms, data are expected to be natively compressed with a Compression Ratio up to 50%. The study is expected to provide valuable insight for the future development of a novel class of EO instruments with improved performances in terms of ground sampling distance, native compression and on-board processing capabilities. Additional presentation content can be accessed on the supplemental content page.
Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) technologies are well established in many application fields over the last decades. Addressing challenging operational conditions, a special class of high-speed SLMs has emerged over the past 20 years, namely Micromirror Array (MMA) devices. Fraunhofer IPMS MMA technology has enabled several ultraviolet photolithography applications at industrial scale. Given the fact that these devices are available for scientific testing, we proposed to explore for the first time their functionality and performance with respect to the space application requirements for the European framework cooperation. Previous studies strongly support this approach with the investigation of several SLM technologies for space instrumentation. In this study, the key parameters of an already available 256 x 256 pixel MMA device have been assessed and its performance has been evaluated under environmental constraints of a future space mission, in terms of temperature (from -40 °C to 80 °C), vacuum (< 10-5 mbar) and vibrations in X-, Y- and Z-axes, showing zero failure rate for the MMA device after all tests. These experimental findings, together with simulations results, confirm the robustness of the MMA technology, especially against temperature changes, and encourage further activities for the development of a space-customized spatial light modulator technology.
The performance of astronomical space telescopes can be greatly impacted by straylight. That is why characterizing the straylight in such telescopes before they are deployed is paramount. Nowadays such characterization can be done by simulation or by test. Simulation can provide very useful information on the origin of straylight, helping devise solutions to reduce it and improve the performance of the telescope. However, simulation suffers from limitations due to processing power needed and assumptions made in the model which can lead to simulation results quite far from the actual performances. Standard straylight tests on the other hand provide accurate measurement of the straylight but without any insight about its origin, making it difficult to mitigate. Emerging technologies now offer new possibilities for straylight measurement using time-of-flight technics to help identify the origin of the straylight. Such technologies were reviewed and analysed in a first activity called TRIPP (Time-Resolved Imaging of Photon Paths). The results and outcome of this study are presented in the first chapter of this paper. A second chapter then presents the ongoing status of a second activity, SLOTT (Straylight Lidar Ogse verificaTion Tool) which aims to develop a demonstrator for such a time-resolved straylight verification system. With the development and test of such a tool, CSEM and its partners (TAS-CH, Difrotec, CSL, LusoSpace), supported by ESA, hopes to establish new methods to characterize and reduce the straylight propagation in future space-based telescopes.
The need of high-resolution Earth Observation (EO) images for scientific and commercial exploitation has led to the generation of an increasing amount of data with a material impact on the resources needed to handle data on board of satellites. In this respect, Compressive Sensing (CS) can offer interesting features in terms of native compression, onboard processing and instrumental architecture. In CS instruments the data are acquired natively compressed by leveraging on the concept of sparsity, while on-board processing is offered at low computational cost by information extraction directly from CS data. In addition, instrument’s architecture can enjoy super-resolution capabilities that ensure a higher number of pixels in the reconstructed image with respect to that natively provided by the detector. In this paper, we present the working principle and main features of a CS demonstrator of a super-resolved instrument for EO applications with ten channels in the visible and two channels in the medium infrared. Besides the feature of merging in a single step the acquisition and compression phases of the image generation, its architecture allows to reach a superresolution factor of at least 4x4 in the images reconstructed at the end of process. The outcome of the research can open the way to the development of a novel class of EO instruments with improved Ground Sampling Distance (GSD) - with respect to that one provided natively by the number of sensing elements of the detector - and impact EO applications thanks to native compression, on-board processing capabilities and increased GSD.
The photothermal optical lock-in optical coherence microscope (poli-OCM) introduced molecular specificity to OCM imaging, which is conventionally, a label-free technique. Here we achieve three-dimensional live cell and mitochondria specific imaging using ~4nm protein-functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). These nanoparticles do not photobleach and we demonstrate they’re suitability for long-term time lapse imaging. We compare the accuracy of labelling with these AuNPs using classical fluorescence confocal imaging with a standard mitochondria specific marker. Furthermore, time lapse poli-OCM imaging every 5 minutes over 1.5 hours period was achieved, revealing the ability for three-dimensional monitoring of mitochondria dynamics.
We developed a high speed Doppler tomography system together with flow extraction algorithms that provide
a flexible tool to assess retinal perfusion. The aim of the present study is to stimulate perfusion by flickering
with light of adjustable color and to measure changes depending on light frequency and flicker location. We
observed relative changes in arterial flow velocity during flicker stimulation up to 50%. We found in arteries
close to the optic nerve head the highest flicker response at a frequency of 8Hz. We believe that a multimodal
functional imaging concept is of high value for an accurate and early diagnosis and understanding of
retinal pathologies and pathogenesis.
Previous investigations on mammalian cells have shown that microgravity, either that experienced in space, or simulated on earth, causes severe cellular modifications that compromise tissue determination and function. The aim of this study is to investigate, in real time, the morphological changes undergone by cells experiencing simulated microgravity by using digital holographic microscopy (DHM). DHM analysis of living mouse myoblasts (C2C12) is undertaken under simulated microgravity with a random positioning machine. The DHM analysis reveals cytoskeletal alterations similar to those previously reported with conventional methods, and in agreement with conventional brightfield fluorescence microscopy a posteriori investigation. Indeed, DHM is shown to be able to noninvasively and quantitatively detect changes in actin reticular formation, as well as actin distribution, in living unstained samples. Such results were previously only obtainable with the use of labeled probes in conjunction with conventional fluorescence microscopy, with all the classically described limitations in terms of bias, bleaching, and temporal resolution.
A dual mode microscope is developed to study morphological evolution of mouse myoblast cells under simulated
microgravity in real time. Microscope operates in Digital Holographic Microscopy (DHM) and widefield epifluorescence
microscopy modes in a time sequential basis. DHM provides information on real time cellular morphology.
EGFP transfected actin filaments in mouse myoblast cells function as the reporter for the fluorescence microscopy mode.
Experimental setup is fixed in the RPM to observe microgravity induced dynamic changes in live cells. Initial results
revealed two different modifications. Disorganized structures become visible in the formed lamellipodias, and proteins
accumulate in the perinuclear region.
To preserve the speed advantage of Fourier Domain detection in Optical Coherence Microscopy (OCM), extended depth
of field (DOF) is needed. To assess and improve the DOF and the lateral resolution, we analyzed the coherent transfer
function (CTF) of OCM. In the spectral domain detection, each wavelength has its own specific CTF, sampling a
different part of the object's spatial frequency spectrum. For classical optics and increasing numerical apertures these
regions start to overlap and bend, which limits the depth of field. Bessel-like beams produced by axicon lenses
circumvent these detrimental effects, but introduce side lobes. Decoupling the detection and the illumination apertures
gives more flexibility in engineering a CTF and optimizes the lateral resolution and the DOF at the same time all while
reducing these side lobes.
We evaluated different combinations of Gaussian and Bessel-like illumination and detection optics. Using Bessel-like
beams as well in the illumination as in the detection paths, but with different side-lobe radii, we obtained a lateral
resolution of 2μm invariant over an extended depth of field of more than 300μm, at a signal penalty of only 12dB
compared to classical Gaussian optics.
Many solutions have been proposed to produce phase quantitative images of biological cell samples. Among these,
Spectral Domain Phase Microscopy combines the fast imaging speed and high sensitivity of Optical Coherence
Microscopy (OCM) in the Fourier domain with the high phase stability of common-path interferometry. We report on a
new illumination scheme for OCM that enhances the sensitivity for backscattered light and detects the weak sample
signal, otherwise buried by the signal from specular reflection. With the use of a Bessel-like beam, a dark-field
configuration was realized. Sensitivity measurements for three different illumination configurations were performed to
compare our method to standard OCM and extended focus OCM. Using a well-defined scattering and reflecting object,
we demonstrated an attenuation of -40 dB of the DC-component and a relative gain of 30 dB for scattered light,
compared to standard OCM. In a second step, we applied this technique, referred to as dark-field Optical Coherence
Microscopy (dfOCM), to living cells. Chinese hamster ovarian cells were applied in a drop of medium on a coverslide.
The cells of ~15 μm in diameter and even internal cell structures were visualized in the acquired tomograms.
Extended focus optical coherence microscope (xfOCM) circumvents the compromise between lateral resolution and
depth of field by us of a Bessel-like illumination beam. The high sensitivity and parallel depth profiling of Fourier
domain optical coherence tomography are preserved, and combined with high isotropic resolution of 1.5 - 2 μm. To
comply with the requirements for in vivo measurements, beam scanning had to be implemented. We then performed
measurements, first of excised pancreas, validated by standard immunohistochemistry, to investigate the structures that
can be observed. For a quantitative analysis, a semi-automatic islet detection algorithm evaluated the islet size, position,
contrast and homogeneity. The influence of streptozotocin on the signature of the islets was investigated in a next step.
Finally, xfOCM was applied to make measurements of the murine pancreas in situ and in vivo, visualizing pancreatic
lobules, ducts, blood vessels and individual islets of Langerhans.
We report on advanced dual-wavelength digital holographic microscopy (DHM) methods, enabling single-acquisition
real-time micron-range measurements while maintaining single-wavelength interferometric resolution in the nanometer
regime. In top of the unique real-time capability of our technique, it is shown that axial resolution can be
further increased compared to single-wavelength operation thanks to the uncorrelated nature of both recorded
wavefronts. It is experimentally demonstrated that DHM topographic investigation within 3 decades measurement
range can be achieved with our arrangement, opening new applications possibilities for this interferometric
technique.
Fourier Domain OCT proved to be an outstanding tool for measuring 3D retinal structures with
high sensitivity, resolution, and speed. We extended the FDOCT concept towards functional
imaging by analyzing the spectroscopic tissue properties, polarization contrast and Doppler
velocity imaging. Differential spectral contrast FDOCT allows optical staining of retinal
tomograms and to contrast tissue of high pigmentation such as the retinal pigment epithelium
(RPE). The latter shows strong correlation if compared to polarization sensitive OCT images.
First implementations of Doppler FDOCT systems demonstrated the capability of measuring in-vivo
retinal blood flow profiles and pulsatility. We developed a new concept of Doppler FDOCT
that allows measuring also large flow velocities typically close to the optic nerve head. Studies of
retinal perfusion based on Laser Doppler Flowmetry (LDF) demonstrated the high sensitivity of
blood flow to external stimuli. We performed first experiments of studying retinal perfusion in
response to flicker stimulation. An increase in vessel diameter by 11% and of flow velocity by
49% was measured. We believe that a multi-modal functional imaging concept is of high value
for an accurate and early diagnosis and understanding of retinal pathologies and pathogenesis.
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