Nitride LEDs can emit over a wide spectral range with particularly high efficiency in the blue. The active regions of these devices are InGaN/GaN quantum wells (QWs) which exhibit emission spectra that are much broader than expected. This broadening has been widely debated in the literature and is often attributed to spatial fluctuations in the emission energy due either to the intrinsic compositional disorder of the ternary alloy or to extrinsic growth inhomogeneities and structural defects. These different causes of disorder occur at different scales, ranging from a few nm to several hundred nm. To study the effects of disorder on the electroluminescence processes at the relevant scales, we have developed a novel approach based on Scanning Tunneling (Electro-)Luminescence Microscopy. We have applied this technique for the simultaneous mapping of the surface topography and the electroluminescence of an operational InGaN/GaN LED. Significant changes in the local electroluminescence spectrum are observed at the scale of alloy disorder and spectacular effects on the emission energy and intensity are evidenced in the vicinity of V-pits that result from emerging dislocations.
Excitons in InGaN quantum wells are a complex phenomenon: due to the interplay between pronounced Coulomb interaction and strong alloy disorder, they possess a hybrid nature in-between the textbook cases of free and fully-localized excitons. Studying them also represent a significant computational challenge.
We will present a thorough numerical investigation of these excitons, based on statistical exploration. We will show how the details of the quantum well structure can lead to a wide range of binding energies and wavefunction behaviors. We will discuss prospects for experimental observation.
Light extraction of internally generated light in LEDs into air has always been a major issue from the early days. The reabsorption of emitted light, long a stumbling block, is now almost always solved by the use of heterostructures. The majority of the internal light undergoes total internal reflection at the materials/air interface due to the large index mismatch. This is mitigated by redirecting light rays by light diffusing/scattering structures situated at interfaces. Powerful simulation techniques exist taking into account the various physical mechanisms into play. The frontier is reaching 95%+ extraction efficiencies which would allow 100%+ LED wall-plug efficiencies
Several hurdles to further enhance the performance of semipolar III-Nitride laser diodes are addressed in this work. Particularly, we focused on improving their high operating voltage by thinning the p-GaN cladding layer and utilizing a transparent conductive oxide p-contact. On-wafer optical absorption measurements showed that a further reduction in voltage with thinner p-GaN was limited by increased optical loss due to increased mode overlap with the ITO/metal anode. In separate attempts to minimize bulk-related optical losses, we implemented a new design that consisted of an AlGaN electron blocking layer (EBL) placed remotely from the quantum wells (QWs) and a low p-waveguide Mg doping profile. A very low optical loss of about 2 cm-1 was extracted but the net improvement in differential efficiency was limited by lower internal injection efficiency due to carrier accumulation in the p-waveguide region. With an optimized design, that consisted of a lightly doped EBL close to the QWs and a UID p-waveguide, an improved light output power of 1.4 W at 1.5 A and a low threshold current density of 1.2 kA/cm2 were obtained.
We present a model of carrier distribution and transport accounting for quantum localization effects in disordered semiconductor alloys. It is based on a recent mathematical theory of quantum localization which introduces a spatial function called localization landscape for carriers. These landscapes allow us to predict the localization of electron and hole quantum states, their energies, and the local densities of states. The various outputs of these landscapes can be directly implemented into a drift-diffusion model of carrier transport and into the calculation of absorption/emission transitions. This model captures the two major effects of quantum mechanics of disordered systems: the reduction of barrier height (tunneling) and lifting of energy ground states (quantum confinement), without having to solve the Schrödinger equation. Comparison with exact Schrödinger calculations in several one-dimensional structures demonstrates the excellent accuracy of the approximation provided by the landscape theory [1]. This approach is then used to describe the absorption Urbach tail in InGaN alloy quantum wells of solar cells and LEDs. The broadening of the absorption edge for quantum wells emitting from violet to green (indium content ranging from 0% to 28%) corresponds to a typical Urbach energy of 20 meV and is closely reproduced by the 3D sub-bandgap absorption based on the localization landscape theory [2]. This agreement demonstrates the applicability of the localization theory to compositional disorder effects in semiconductors.
[1] M. Filoche et al., Phys. Rev. B 95, 144204 (2017)
[2] M. Piccardo et al., Phys. Rev. B 95, 144205 (2017)
In nitride ternary alloys, natural compositional disorder induces strong electronic localization effects. We present a new experimental approach which allows a direct probing at nanometer scale of disorder-induced localization effects in InGaN/GaN quantum wells (QWs). In this experiment, samples are p-type heterostructures incorporating an InGaN/GaN QW nearby the surface. The electrons are locally injected from a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) tip into the conduction band of the thin cladding top GaN layer and captured in the InGaN QW where they radiatively recombine. The injected current is maintained constant by the STM feedback loop and the injection electron energy is controlled by the bias voltage applied to the tip-sample tunnel junction. The luminescence onset voltage coincides with electron injection above the bottom of the conduction band in the bulk GaN (beyond the band bending region). Thereby, scanning the tip allows the high-resolution mapping of the luminescence process in the InGaN QW. Spatial fluctuations of the luminescence peak energy and linewidth are observed on the scale of a few nanometers, which are characteristic of disorder-induced carrier localization. A model based on the so-called localization landscape theory is developed to take into account the effect of alloy disorder into simulations of the structure properties. The localization landscape notably describes an effective confining potential, whose basins and crests define the localization regions of carriers. This theory accounts well for the observed nanometer scale carrier localization and the energy-dependent luminescence linewidth observed for the quantum electron states in the disordered energy band.
It emerges that LEDs properties are strongly impacted by intrinsic disorder induced by random In compositional fluctuations. They obviously impact the light emission spectrum and carrier mobilities. The quantitative evaluation of their impact in full heterostructures is made difficult by the extreme demand on computing resources when calculating solutions of the Schrödinger equation for a disordered 3D potential map. Calculations are then limited to small volumes and to the first few quantum states, not allowing for simulations of transport properties in full devices. It was recently shown in a simplified model that disorder can account for a turn-on voltage of LEDs smaller by 1V compared to standard simulations. We will present novel theoretical and modeling tools of disorder, namely the Filoche-Mayboroda 3D localization landscape theory, which from the original disordered energy map provides an effective potential which allows to use standard transport equations while accounting for microscopic disorder. We thus gain a deep understanding of various effects of disorder in nitride heterostructures on their electrical and optoelectronic properties. As a first application of the new tool we model our detailed measurements of the absorption edge of InGaN/GaN quantum wells with varying In composition. The tool is then applied to carrier transport in full LED structures. The effective potential increases current at a given bias voltage by accounting for two quantum effects of disorder, tunneling and confinement, which together smooth out potential discontinuities in the heterostructure. Quantum efficiency, Auger and leakage droop, ideality factor of the LED will be discussed.
The energy difference between the lowest conduction band valleys is a fundamental semiconductor parameter affecting performance of electronic devices via intervalley electron scattering. Surprisingly, the intervalley energy (IVE) value in GaN is still disputed. Recent photoemission experiments showed that IVE is 0.90 – 0.95 eV, which is considerably smaller than the >2 eV values obtained by ab initio calculations.
One of the suitable techniques to measure IVE is time-resolved spectroscopy. Excitation wavelength dependent photoluminescence and pump-probe transients allow pinpointing the onset of the intervalley scattering by increase of the electron relaxation time towards the bottom of the conduction band. In this work, we apply this approach by performing differential transmission (DT) and reflection (DR) measurements on n-GaN crystal. In DR, ultraviolet (UV) pump creates electrons in the Γ valley at energies around the scattering threshold, and the onset energy is determined by the change of the electron relaxation time towards the bottom of the conduction band. However, IVE evaluated using this technique is affected by the poor knowledge of the valence band dispersion at large k values. This problem is circumvented in the DT measurements, in which only conduction band states are involved. The DT decay time spectrum provided the IVE value of 0.97 ± 0.02 eV, close to the photoemission data. Comparison of DT and DR intervalley scattering onsets allowed estimating the hole mass as 1.4m0. Modelling of the DR transients with rate equations produced intra-and intervalley electron - LO phonon scattering times of 30 and 15 fs, respectively.
We discuss the unambiguous detection of Auger electrons by electron emission (EE) spectroscopy from a cesiated InGaN/GaN light-emitting diode (LED) under electrical injection. Electron emission spectra were measured as a function of the current injected in the device. The appearance of high-energy electron peaks simultaneously with the droop in LED efficiency shows that hot carriers are being generated in the active region (InGaN quantum wells) by an Auger process. A linear correlation was measured between the high energy emitted electron current and the “droop current” - the missing component of the injected current for light emission. We conclude that the droop originates from the onset of Auger processes. We compare such a direct identification of the droop mechanism with other identifications, most of them indirect and based on the many-parameter modeling of the dependence of the external quantum efficiency on the carrier injection.
Our work is devoted to the development of YAG:Ce3+ nanoparticle based films for white LEDs. Very stable
suspensions of YAG:Ce nanoparticles are synthesized by a glycothermal method at relatively low temperature (300°C).
A protected annealing in a silica matrix allows further treatment of these nanoparticles at high temperature without any
aggregation and growth and with a significant improvement of their quantum yield and photostability. The obtained
colloidal nanoparticles are finally incorporated into different matrices to be used as converter layer for white LEDs. First,
the incorporation in epoxy caps confirms that the annealed particles are much more efficient than the as-made ones and
leads to white light generation. YAG:Ce nanoparticles are also dispersed into a sol-gel matrix of TiO2. Thanks to the
relative matching of refractive indexes between TiO2 and YAG, and to the sub-wavelength particles size, YAG/TiO2films are not scattering, contrary to the same film containing the commonly used micron size phosphor. Nevertheless,
they are not absorbent enough. Thus, YAG:Ce suspensions are then spray-coated to obtain thicker and non diluted films.
These films are a bit scattering but this can be solved by filling their porosity with a high refractive index matrix. A
yellow component is detected when deposited onto a blue LED, meaning that they absorb much more than the
YAG:Ce/TiO2 system. When used as light converters for white LEDs, these spray-coated films could offer the
opportunity to diminish the backscattered light absorption losses.
Signal-to-noise ratio is a crucial issue in microarray fluorescence read-out. Several strategies are proposed for its
improvement. First, light collection in conventional microarrays scanners is quite limited. It was recently shown that
almost full collection can be achieved in an integrated lens-free biosensor, with labelled species hybridizing practically
on the surface of a sensitive silicon detector [L. Martinelli et al. Appl. Phys. Lett. 91, 083901 (2007)]. However, even
with such an improvement, the ultimate goal of real-time measurements during hybridization is challenging: the detector
is dazzled by the large fluorescence of labelled species in the solution. In the present paper we show that this unwanted
signal can effectively be reduced if the excitation light is confined in a waveguide. Moreover, the concentration of
excitation light in a waveguide results in a huge signal gain. In our experiment we realized a structure consisting of a
high index sol-gel waveguide deposited on a low-index substrate. The fluorescent molecules deposited on the surface of
the waveguide were excited by the evanescent part of a wave travelling in the guide. The comparison with free-space
excitation schemes confirms a huge gain (by several orders of magnitude) in favour of waveguide-based excitation. An
optical guide deposited onto an integrated biosensor thus combines both advantages of ideal light collection and
enhanced surface localized excitation without compromising the imaging properties. Modelling predicts a negligible
penalty from spatial cross-talk in practical applications. We believe that such a system would bring microarrays to
hitherto unattained sensitivities.
We report on submicron-thick microcavity light emitting diodes (MCLEDs) emitting at the wavelengths of 415 nm ~
460 nm. These devices were fabricated by flip-chip-bonding, laser lift-off, and thinning processes. Growth of a highquality
AlxGa1-xN interlayer and etch selectivity between N-face GaN and AlxGa1-xN allowed high-precision control of
microcavity thickness, resulting in controlled microcavity effects. Single Fabry-Pérot modes confined in 2λ ~ 2.5λ-thick
MCLEDs gave rise to characteristic angular emission, in contrast to a Lambertian emission. High current operation
(~100 mA) showed robustness of these thin devices with promising the possibility of high-brightness application. We
will discuss design and processing issues regarding photonic-crystal integration towards higher improvements in light
extraction efficiency.
Waveguides in photonic crystals are one-dimensional photonic systems, with a richer basic physics than micro/nanocavities thanks to their extended nature. We evidence various roles of the one-dimensional singularities that occur at zero-group velocity points dispersion relations and mode anticrossings: One role is the demultiplexing in a space-localized fashion, combining properties of the Fabry-Perot and grating dispersive devices in a miniature footprint. Various aspects of the realization of such devices will be presented, towards WDM or coarse WDM applications in the framework of the european FUNFOX project.
Another role is the possiblity to enhance gain in inverse proportion of the slwoed-down group velocity. A third possiblity is to produce a Purcell effect and thus a shorter lifetime for emitters embedded in such waveguides. This last possibility raises the prospect of an integrated high efficiency source with controlled photon modes.
We study photonic crystal (PhC)-assisted light extraction from gallium nitride (GaN) light-emitting diodes (LEDs). We focus on the issue of omnidirectional extraction, and we introduce a complex crystal lattice, namely the Archimedean tiling, which enables efficient and omnidirectional light extraction. PhC LEDs with regular triangular lattices and Archimedean lattices are studied experimentally by angle-resolved luminescence, and the theoretical properties of the Archimedean tiling are confirmed experimentally.
Practical realizations of 2D (planar) photonics crystal (PhC) are either on a membrane or etched through a conventional heterostructure. While fascinating objects can emerge from the first approach, only the latter approach lends itself to a progressive integration of more compact PhC's towards monolithic PICs based on InP. We describe in this talk the various aspects from technology to functions and devices, as emerged from the European collaboration "PCIC." The main technology tour de force is deep-etching with aspect ratio of about 10 and vertical sidewall, achieved by three techniques (CAIBE, ICP-RIE, ECR-RIE). The basic functions explored are bends, splitters/combiners, mirrors, tapers, and the devices are filters and lasers. At the end of the talk, I will emphasize some positive aspects of "broad" multimode PhC waveguides, in view of compact add-drop filtering action, notably.
Photonic crystals have seen major advances in the past few years in the optical range. The association of in-plane waveguiding and two-dimensional (2D) photonic crystals (PCs) in thin-slab or waveguide structures leads to good 3D confinement with easy fabrication. Such structures, much easier to fabricate than 3D PCs, open many exciting opportunities in optoelectronic devices and integrated optics. We review the basics of these structures, with emphasis on basic properties and loss performance, as well as modeling tools, which show that 2D PCs etched through waveguides supported by substrates are a viable route to high-performance PC-based photonic integrated circuits (PICs). A companion paper by Benisty et al. in these proceedings illustrates further high performance building blocks and integrated devices.
We are progressively approaching the physical limits of microcavity LEDs (MC-LEDs) for high brightness, high efficiency LEDs. They are promising high efficiency devices and they offer the very attractive prospect of full planar fabrication process. However, to compete with other high efficiency LED schemes, they need to approach or surpass the 50 % efficiency mark. We first explore the limits of planar MC-LEDs in both the GaAlInAsP and GaInAlN materials systems, and show that the single-step extraction limit is in the 40 % range at best, depending on the materials system used, with the largest part of the non-extracted light being emitted into guided modes. The waveguided light can itself be extracted by photon recycling, when the internal quantum efficiency is high. Otherwise, another extraction scheme for that light is provided by various photonic-crystal-assisted extraction schemes. Simple photonic crystals (PCs) appear to lack the omnidirectional extraction properties required. However, more rotation-invariant PCs like Archimedean tilings allow to obtain such extraction with added efficiencies already in the 10% range. We discuss the further improvements to such structures.
We present results on the fabrication and characterization of two and one dimensional photonic crystals for optoelectronic device applications. By using high resolution electron beam lithography 2D and 1D photonic crystals structures are defined on GaAlAs/GaAs and InP/InGaAsP waveguide layers. A crucial step of the patterning is the dry etching, in which structures on a (sub) 100 nm scale with aspect ratios (width to height) of ten or more have to be obtained. We have realized straight waveguides, waveguides with sharp bends, waveguides with build - in cavities as well as lasers with 1D and 2 D photonic crystal mirrors. By using a build in quantum dot layer, optical modes in the passive structures can be investigated. In the InGaAsP as well as in the InGaAs material system ridge waveguide lasers with photonic crystal mirrors have been realized. For the InGaAs system 1D Bragg reflectors with reflectivities above 95 percent have been obtained. These mirrors are essential for mircolasers with active resonator length down to 12 micrometers . These are the shortest edge emitting lasers realized to date.
Photonic crystals have seen major advances in the past few years in the optical range. The association of in-plane waveguiding and 2D photonic crystals in thin-slab or waveguide structures leads to overall good 3D confinement with easy fabrication. We present experiments on a variety of structures and devices, as well as modeling tools, which show that 2D PCs etched through waveguides supported by substrates are a viable route to high-performance PC-based photonic integrated circuits. In particular, they exhibit low out-of-plane radiation losses. Low-loss waveguides, high finesse micro cavities, and their mutual coupling are demonstrated.
We present experimental and theoretical results on the low temperature luminescence intensity of dry etched GaAs-AlxGa1-xAs quantum dots. The luminescence intensity was found to decrease by two orders of magnitude with the decrease of dot sizes from 1 micrometers to 60 nm. Our intrinsic model of the emission yield invokes slower momentum and energy relaxation mechanisms as the lateral dimensions decrease. The extrinsic effect, which we include in our interpretation of the luminescence intensity, involves carrier diffusion with a surface nonradiative recombination velocity. The combined effect (intrinsic and extrinsic) gives a very good fit to our data. The surface recombination velocity needed for the fit was approximately 105 cm/s. Raman studies on the quantum dots showed enhanced surface phonons with the decrease of the nanostructure sizes. `GaAs'-like and `AlAs'-like surface phonons were also observed for the first time in etched nanostructures, in good agreement with the theoretical predications.
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