In this paper, we describe the development of a prototype differential absorption fluorescence lidar for nighttime tropospheric formaldehyde (H2CO) concentration profiling. H2CO has a strong absorption band in the 352-357nm region and fluoresces strongly in the 390-500nm region. Here, we obtain high sensitivity (∼0.1ppb) measurements of H2CO profiles from differential fluorescence signals obtained by injection seeding a Nd:YVO laser and tuning its wavelength on and off the peak of a strong absorption line. The fluorescence signal strength is further improved by using a multi-line bandpass filter whose pass-bands are aligned to multiple fluorescence peaks of H2CO. A H2CO filled photo-acoustic absorption cell is utilized for tuning the seed laser wavelength to the center of absorption line.
In this paper, we describe the development of a three-beam elastic lidar that utilizes aerosol backscatter correlation to measure three-component wind profiles for detecting and tracking aircraft wake vortices; turbulence intensity and wind shear profiles. High-resolution time-resolved wind information can currently be obtained with ultrasonic or hot-wire anemometers suitable for local point measurements, or with Doppler wind lidars that only measure line-of-sight wind speeds and have to be scanned over large measurement cone angles for obtaining three-component winds. By tracking the motion of aerosol structures along and between three near-parallel laser beams, our lidar obtains three-component wind speed profiles along the field of view (FOV) of the lidar beams. Our prototype lidar wind profiler (LWP) has three 8-inch transceiver modules placed in a near-parallel configuration on a two-axis pan-tilt scanner to measure winds up to 2km away. Passively q-switched near-infrared (1030nm) Yb:YAG lasers generate 12 - 18ns wide pulses at high repetition rate (about 10KHz) that are expanded and attenuated to eye-safe levels. Sensitive low noise detection is achieved even in daytime using a narrow FOV receiver, together with narrowband interference filters and single photoncounting Geiger-mode Si detectors. A multi-channel scaler retrieves the lidar return with 7.8ns bins (∼1.2m spatial resolution) and stores accumulated counts once every 50ms (20 profiles/sec). We adapted optical flow algorithms to obtain the movement of aerosol structures between the beams. The performance of our prototype LWP was validated using sonic anemometer measurements.
Formaldehyde is a trace species that plays a key role in atmospheric chemistry. It is an important indicator of nonmethane
volatile organic compound emissions. Also, it is a key reactive intermediate formed during the photochemical
oxidation in the troposphere. Because the lifetime of formaldehyde in the atmosphere is fairly short (several hours), its
presence signals hydrocarbon emission areas. The importance of measuring formaldehyde concentrations has been
recognized by the National Academy's Decadal Survey and two of NASA's forthcoming missions the GEO-CAPE and
GACM target its measurement. There are several techniques some of which are highly sensitive (detection limit ~ 50
parts-per-trillion) for in-situ measurement of formaldehyde and many reported atmospheric measurements. However
there appear to be no reported standoff lidar techniques for range resolved measurements of atmospheric formaldehyde
profiles. In this paper, we describe a formaldehyde lidar profiler based on differential laser induced fluorescence
technique. The UV absorption band in the 352 - 357nm is well suited for laser excitation with frequency tripled
Neodymium lasers and measuring the strong fluorescence in the 390 - 500nm region. Preliminary nighttime
measurements of formaldehyde were demonstrated with a lidar using a commercial Nd:YAG laser (354.7 nm) with a
rather large linewidth (~.02 nm). The measured sensitivity was ~1 ppb at 1 km with 100 meters range resolution even
with this non-optimized system. In this paper we describe our approach for increasing the sensitivity by many orders
and for daytime operation by improving the laser parameters (power and linewidth) and optimizing the receiver.
Water vapor is the most important atmospheric greenhouse gas, but its variability and distribution, particularly the
vertical profile, are not well known due to a lack of reliable long-term observations in the upper troposphere and
stratosphere. Additional design and testing is necessary to extend Water Vapor Sensor System (WVSS) sensitivity to
water vapor from a threshold of 100 ppmv to 2.8 ppmv to support operational and climate applications. Laser
photoacoustic spectroscopy (LPAS) technique can extend the sensitivity to this level without extending absorption
chamber path or using expensive laser emitting at stronger absorption line. A laser photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor
based on inexpensive telecommunication style packaged, fiber-coupled near IR distributed feedback (DFB) laser diodes
was developed to quantify concentrations of water vapor (H2O), CO2, and methane in ambient air. The LPAS sensor
assembled in a compact package was designed for airborne, real-time measurements of atmospheric components. A
resonant photoacoustic cell is used to increase the photoacoustic signal, electrical modulation is applied to replace
mechanical chopper, and wavelength modulation spectroscopy is used to minimize the interfering background signal
from window absorption in the sample cell. The minimum detection sensitivities (1σ) of 5 ppm at 1.39 μm (5 mW) for
water vapor, 6 ppm at 1.6 μm (15 mW) for CO2, and 3 ppm at 1.6 μm (15 mW) for methane, are reported.
US EPA's Clean Air Act lists 187 hazardous air pollutants (HAP) or airborne toxics that are considered especially
harmful to health, and hence the measurement of their concentration is of great importance. Numerous sensor systems
have been reported for measuring these toxic gases and vapors. However, most of these sensors are specific to a single
gas or able to measure only a few of them. Thus a sensor capable of measuring many of the toxic gases simultaneously is
desirable. Laser photoacoustic spectroscopy (LPAS) sensors have the potential for true broadband measurement when
used in conjunction with one or more widely tunable laser sources. An LPAS gas analyzer equipped with a continuous
wave, room temperature IR Quantum Cascade Laser tunable over the wavelength range of 9.4 μm to 9.7 μm was used
for continuous real-time measurements of multiple gases/chemical components. An external cavity grating tuner was
used to generate several (75) narrow line output wavelengths to conduct photoacoustic absorption measurements of gas
mixtures. We have measured various HAPs such as Benzene, Formaldehyde, and Acetaldehyde in the presence of
atmospheric interferents water vapor, and carbon dioxide. Using the preliminary spectral pattern recognition algorithm,
we have shown our ability to measure all these chemical compounds simultaneously in under 3 minutes. Sensitivity
levels of a few part-per-billion (ppb) were achieved with several of the measured compounds with the preliminary
laboratory system.
A compact Ultraviolet Biological Trigger Lidar (UBTL) instrument for detection and discrimination of bio-warfare-agent (BWA) simulant aerosol clouds was developed by us [Prasad, et al, 2004] using a 5mW, 375nm semiconductor UV optical source (SUVOS) laser diode. It underwent successful field tests at Dugway Proving Ground and demonstrated measurement ranges of over 300m for elastic scattering and >100m for fluorescence. The UBTL was modified during mid-2004 to enhance its detection and discrimination performance with increased range of operation and sensitivity. The major optical modifications were: 1. increase in telescope collection aperture to 200 mm diameter: 2. addition of 266nm and 977nm laser transmitters: 3. addition of three detection channels for 266nm and 977nm elastic backscatter and fluorescence centered at 330nm. Also the commercial electronics of the original UBTL were replaced with a multi-channel field programmable gate array (FPGA) chip for laser diode modulation and data acquisition that allowed simultaneous and continuous operation of the UBTL sensor on all of its transmitter and receiver wavelengths. A notebook computer was added for data display and storage. Field tests were performed during July 2004 at the Edgewood Chemical and Biological Center in Maryland to establish the enhanced performance of UBTL subsystems. Results of these tests are presented and discussed.
A compact ultraviolet lidar stand-off sensor was recently developed and field-tested for detection of bio warfare (BW) agent stimulant aerosols and interferents. It employed a low-power (~5mW), continuous-wave, 375nm semiconductor ultraviolet optical source (SUVOS) laser diode that was modulated at high-speed with a pseudo-random (PR) code to provide range-resolved lidar detection of both aerosol elastic scattering and fluorescence. The sensor incorporated a 150mm diameter receiver telescope and 3 photon-counting detection channels centered at 375nm, 440nm, and 550nm. Aerosol elastic and fluorescence lidar profiles were obtained by correlating the signal photon-counts with the PR code. Tests of the lidar were performed first with simulants released in the Large Aerosol Chamber at Edgewood Chemical and Biological Center, MD at a lidar range of only 7.5m. The second phase of testing was done at Dugway Proving Ground, UT. Here the lidar was continuously scanned (± 13°) in a horizontal plane to detect downwind simulant and interferent aerosol disseminations at ranges of several hundred meters. Preliminary analyses of these tests show that the lidar detected fluorescence from the BW simulants at ranges up to 100m, and elastic scattering from aerosols up to 350m.
KEYWORDS: LIDAR, Aerosols, Analog electronics, Signal to noise ratio, Sensors, Clouds, Telescopes, Atmospheric particles, Signal detection, Laser energy
Remote detection of biological warfare agents (BWA) is crucial for providing early warning to ensure maximum survivability of personnel in the battlefield and other sensitive areas. Although the current generation of stand- off aerosol and fluorescence lidars have demonstrated stand- off detection and identification of BWA, their large size and cost make them difficult for field use. We have introduced a new eye-safe portable digital lidar (PDL) technique based on digital detection that achieves orders of magnitude reduction in the size, cost and complexity over the conventional lidar, while providing an equal or better sensitivity and range. Excellent performance has been obtained with two of our PDL sensors during two bio-aerosol measurement campaigns carried out at Dugway Proving Grounds. In the JFT 4.5 (Oct 98) tests, high aerosol sensitivity of 300 ppl of biosimulant particles at up to 3 km was demonstrated with an eye-safe wavelength (523nm) aerosol micro PDL that utilized a 8 inch telescope, <10(mu) J/pulse energy at 2.5kHz, photon counting digital detection and 2 sec averaging. For the JBREWS DFT (June 99) tests an eye-safe two wavelengths (523nm and 1.047mum) horizontally scanned, aerosol micro PDL with the same 8 inch telescope was utilized. With this lidar, high sensitivity, preliminary differentiation between natural and unusual clouds, and the ability to track the aerosol cloud location, their wind speed and direction were also demonstrated. Lidar simulations of both PDL and conventional analog detection have been performed. Based on these model calculations and experimental results an analysis and comparison of the inherent capabilities of two types of systems is given.
Diode-pumped, tunable Cr:LiSAF lasers are well suited for airborne water vapor differential absorption lidar application. Three types of diode-pumped, tunable, narrow- linewidth, injection seeded, Q-switched Cr:LiSAF lasers for high resolution atmosheric water vapor DIAL measurements in the wavelength range of 810-830 nm have been developed and investigated. By using a total internal reflection laser resonator configuration, efficient coupling of pump radiation from large diode arrays is achieved as also the ability to limit the temperature rise in the LiSAF crystal at high pump powers. The first is a high-energy Cr:LiSAF laser producing up to 25 mJ/pulse at 816 nm with a repetition rate of 1-10 Hz. A DFB diode laser locked to a water vapor absorption line using a photo-acoustic cell was employed to injection seed and tune the slave Cr:LiSAF laser. High spectral purity (<99%) and wavelength stability of 0.08 pm over a period of 10 hours were demonstrated. The second Cr:LiSAF laser is designed to operate at 100 Hz while producing up to 10 mJ/pulse with a much lesser pump power. The reduction in size and weight of this laser coupled with the increased average power leads to significant improvement in the DIAL performance over the first laser. The third diode-pumped Cr:LiSAF laser is an ultra compact laser producing up to 0.1 mJ/pulse at 1000 Hz. This laser is suitable for measuring water vapor profiles in the lower troposhere (3 to 5 km). The input-output and spectral performance of these lasers are presented.
Standoff sensors for rapid remote detection of chemical emissions from either clandestine chemical production sites, chemical and biological warfare agents, concealed internal combustion engine emissions or rocket propellants from missiles are required for several DoD applications. The differential absorption lidar (DIAL) operating in the infrared wavelengths has established itself as a very effective tool for rapidly detecting many of the chemicals, with sufficient sensitivity with a range of several kilometers. The wavelengths required for this task lie within the atmospheric window regions 3 to 5 micrometers and 8 to 12 micrometers . We are currently developing a differential absorption lidar (DIAL) tunable in the 3 to 5 micrometers range for detecting low concentrations of chemical species with high sensitivity (5 ppb) and accuracy (error < 10%) measurements for greater than 5 km range. We have successfully established the feasibility of an innovative frequency agile laser source which is the crucial component of the infrared DIAL. A diode-pumped ytterbium YAG laser was built for pumping and rapidly tuning an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) over the mid-infra red region. Good performance (5 mJ/pulse) of the laser and low threshold wide infra red tuning of OPO (2.2 - 3.1 micrometers ) were demonstrated. The simulated performance of the topographical IR-DIAL showed that 5 ppb concentration can be measured at 5 km range with a 35 cm telescope.
By combining the capability of a differential absorption lidar (DIAL) and the excellent characteristics of a micro pulse lidar (MPL) we have designed and tested a micro pulse DIAL system, which could be operated from the ground or airborne platform, to monitor the atmospheric water vapor mixing ratio. To maintain the compact and rugged optical frame work of an MPL it employs a diode pumped tunable Cr:LiSAF laser operating at 825 - 840 nm range, a fiber optic beam delivery system, and an APD photon counting detector. The system parameters were optimized through extensive DIAL simulations, and the design concept was tested by building a breadboard lidar system. Based on the results of the simulations and the performance of the breadboard lidar the Micro Pulse DIAL system design has been refined to (1) minimize scattered laser light -- the major source of signal induced bias, (2) permit near field measurements from less than 400 m, (3) produce a compact, rugged, eye-safe instrument with a day and night operating capability. The lidar system is expected to provide 150 m vertical resolution, high accuracy (approximately 5%), and 3 km range looking up from the ground.
Continuous monitoring of atmospheric water vapor mixing ratio profiles, especially within the planetary boundary layer is required for weather assessment, global circulation models and atmospheric studies. Although conventional lidar techniques based on Raman scattering or differential absorption are capable of such measurements, they are usually large, expensive systems with high power lasers which pose eye safety problems. This paper describes a compact, cost effective, eye-safe, Raman lidar operating in the solar blind wavelength region that can be used for autonomous daytime and nighttime monitoring of water vapor in the lower atmosphere. The performance of the compact Raman lidar was simulated and also experimentally verified with a bread-board lidar. Daytime measurements of up to 2.5 km and nighttime measurements to over 3 km with 10% accuracy can be obtained with less than 10 minutes of averaging.
A proof-of-concept (POC) instrument system to measure cloud top height from space using three complementary techniques is presented. These techniques use measurements of (1) thermal infrared (IR), (2) molecular oxygen 'A' band absorption, and (3) filling-in of Fraunhofer lines (the Ring effect), respectively. Combining three techniques is achieved with a single grating spectrograph with bandpass and order sorting filters by measuring 11 micrometer radiation from the zeroth order of the grating for the IR, 750 - 780 nm radiation from the first order for the 'A' band absorption, and 390 - 400 nm radiation from the second order for the Ca K and H Fraunhofer line filling-in effect. The POC system and its measurement results with the POC system are described.
High spectral purity, high energy, tunable laser sources operating in the absorption bands at 730, 815 or 940 nm bands are required for remote sensing of water vapor mixing ratio with a differential absorption lidar. For this application, injection seeding of a high energy Cr3+:LiSeAlF6 ring laser with a narrowband, Q- switched, Cr:LiSAF laser was investigated. The slave ring laser utilized either a flashlamp pumped or diode-pumped Cr:LiSAF gain module. The flashlamp pumped module provided a single-pass gain of 1.5 at 825nm. The diode-pumped module consisted of a Cr:LiSAF rod, side-pumped with high power diode bar stacks giving > 150mJ energy in 200 microsecond(s) pulse. The spectral bandwidth of the ring laser output was 8 to 10 nm without injection seeding. The seed Cr:LiSAF laser was end pumped by a fiber coupled diode laser, and tuned with a birefringent filter. Tuning from 810 to 980 nm was possible with two sets of mirrors, and 160 to 700 ns long Q- switched pulses, with up to 40(mu) J energy, at 1000 Hz, were obtained with linewidths of < 0.1 nm. Successful seeding of both diode and flashlamp pumped lasers, narrowing of ring laser linewidth to < 0.1 nm, and 16 mJ/pulse output have been achieved.
As a result of the development of a new air pollution measurement capability, we present observations of air pollution parameters in the Baltimore/Washington, D.C. area for the months of August and September 1992, requested by the Air and Radiation Management Administration, State of Maryland Department of the Environment (MDE). The measured parameters are (1) the height of the atmospheric boundary layer (BL) as determined by lidar (laser backscatter by aerosols) and (2) the concentration of the major gaseous pollutants (O3, SO2, and NO2) as determined by long-path differential optical absorption spectroscopy. Selected results are presented in pictorial, graphical, and tabular forms, and are compared with each other and with observations taken with other pollutant and meteorological instruments operating in the same region and time period. Complete data have been provided to the MDE for Urban Airshed Model calculations. Early results are promising on correlations between BL parameters and pollutant concentration; this relatively recent study is still underway.
Narrowband radiation is produced from a pulsed alexandrite laser when injection seeded with the output of a low-power, tunable, continuous-wave, single-mode diode laser. Injection seeded power oscillators are easier to frequency stabilize than etalong narrowed lasers, are more efficient, and less prone to optical damage. AlGaAs diode lasers are available with wavelengths from 760 to 770 nm in the oxygen A band that can be used for differential absorption lidar remote sensing of atmospheric pressure and temperature. Diodes with room temperature output at 740 nm may be cooled sufficiently to emit in the water vapor absorption band at 720-730 nm for humidity remote sensing. The diodes are driven with approximately 70 mA of current with a 0.5 mA peak to peak sinusoidal dither which imparts a 3 GHz frequency modulation to the output. A photoacoustic cell is utilized to generate a negative feedback signal to keep the diode frequency centered on the atmospheric absorption feature. The diode laser linewidth of 200 MHz is sufficient to seed 2 or 3 longitudinal modes of the multitransverse mode alexandrite laser, giving the pulsed laser a bandwidth of 0.007 to 0.014 cm-
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