Electronic circuits alone cannot fully meet future requirements for speed, size, and weight of many sensor systems, such as digital radar technology and as a result, interest in integrated photonic circuits (IPCs) and the hybridization of electronics with photonics is growing. However, many IPC components such as photodetectors are not presently ideal, but germanium has many advantages to enable higher performance designs that can be better incorporated into an IPC. For example, Ge photodetectors offer an enormous responsivity to laser wavelengths near 1.55μm at high frequencies to 40GHz, and they can be easily fabricated as part of a planar silicon processing schedule. At the same time, germanium has enormous potential for enabling 1.55 micron lasers on silicon and for enhancing the performance of silicon modulators. Our new effort has begun by studying the deposition of germanium on silicon and beginning to develop methods for processing these films. In initial experiments comparing several common chemical solutions for selective etching under patterned positive photoresist, it was found that hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) at or below room temperature (20 C) produced the sharpest patterns in the Ge films; H2O2 at a higher temperature (50 C) resulted in the greatest lateral etching.
An all guided-wave multi-spectral laser source emitting watts to tens-of-watts of mid-infrared power would impact a
broad range of airborne and space applications. As compared with a free-space solid-state laser source, a guided-wave
design, composed of coupled lasing and nonlinear optical components, offers potential advantages in size, weight,
efficiency, and mechanical robustness while retaining high beam quality for single-mode designs. New material options
under development by the Materials and Manufacturing Directorate of the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)
enable new approaches to achieving such a source.
Photopatterning with 266 nm UV light was accomplished on spin-coated DNA thin films using two different techniques.
Lithographic masks were used to create 10-100 micron-sized arrays of enhanced hydrophilicity. Two such masks were
used: (1) Polka Dot Filter having opaque squares and a transparent grid and (2) A metal wire-mesh having transparent
squares and opaque grid. UV light selectively photodissociates the DNA film where it is exposed into smaller more
hydrophilic fragments. UV-exposed films are then coated with a solution of a protein. The protein appears to selectively
coat over areas exposed to UV light. We have also used interferometric lithography with UV light to accomplish
patterning on the scale of 1 micron on DNA thin films. This technique has the potential to generate micro/nano arrays
and vary the array-size. This paper describes the fabrication of these microarrays and a plausible application for
fabricating antibody arrays for protein sensing applications.
Using descriptive and explanatory research methodologies, researchers have qualitatively
investigated factors influential in causing our nation's youth to decide whether to select
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) as their academic majors.
Furthermore, researchers have also examined what causes African American men and
women to decide whether they desire to become engineers and scientists. Using preexisting
studies numerous themes have emerged from these data, which supports
educational outreach as a powerful tool for encouraging our youth to consider the STEM
disciplines.
This paper highlights Air Force Research Laboratory researchers' efforts in combating the
forces that could jeopardize our nation's position as one of the leaders in technology and
scientific innovations.
Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique capable of single molecule detection
sensitivity. We have detected SERS on the tip of a 3 mm-core diameter PMMA plastic optical fiber. The technique
involves deposition of 30 nm gold nanoparticles followed by deposition of sample of interest to be analyzed. SERS
enhancement has been demonstrated for several chemicals like glycerin and dye Rhodamine 6G as well biological
molecules like Acetaminophen, aspirin and Streptavidin and poly-L-Lysine. It is shown that interfering spectrum of
PMMA can be subtracted to reveal the SERS spectrum of molecule of interest. The technique can simplify SERS
detection by connecting the other end of fiber directly to a spectrometer. SERS was recorded for various concentrations
of analytes. Using a focused 633 nm laser, a detection sensitivity of 0.1picogram was established.
Enhanced electroluminescent efficiency using a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-based biopolymer complex as an electron blocking layer has been demonstrated in both green- and blue-emitting organic light emitting diodes. The resulting bio organic light emitting diodes, or BioLEDs, achieved a maximum luminous efficiency of 8.2 and 0.8 cd/A, respectively, resulting in as much as 10× higher efficiency, 30× brighter output and 3× longer lifetime than their OLED counterparts. In this paper we describe the device fabrication and present the performance of these new structures.
The use of DNA as a functional biomaterial for optical device applications is becoming a
fast-expanding technology. Various researchers are investigating salmon DNA as the
primary ingredient in the design of optical waveguide devices. The interaction of the
indicator dye molecule, Bromocresol Purple (BCP) with the unique homogeneous double
helical structure of DNA for potential electro-optic and chemical sensing applications is
reported.
Suitable organic and polymeric based materials for electronic and photonic applications must possess the desired
electromagnetic and optical properties to achieve optimal device performance in order to be more competitive with their
inorganic counterparts. A new class of biopolymer, processed from purified marine-based deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), has been investigated for use in both electronic and photonic applications and has demonstrated promise as an
excellent dielectric and optical waveguide material. In this paper we present examples of devices using this new DNA-based
biopolymer.
Suitable polymer-based photonic materials must possess the desired optical and electromagnetic properties for optimal device performance depending on the intended application. A new class of polymer, processed from purified deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), has been investigated for use in photonic applications and has shown promise as an excellent optical waveguide material. In this paper we present the current optical and electronic properties of this new DNA-based biopolymer, including optical loss, temperature stability, refractive index, resistivity, dielectric constant and microwave insertion loss.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) extracted and purified from salmon roe and milt sacs, a waste product of the fishing industry was studied for molecular binding and photoluminescence effects using bromocresol purple (BCP). Since BCP is both water and alcohol soluble it was investigated for binding efficiency in DNA/water solutions and modified DNA-CTMA/butanol solutions. Circular dichroism studies show that there is a maximum binding concentration of BCP in the DNA/water solution at ~5% by weight of BCP:DNA. In contrast, DNA-CTMA/butanol solutions showed increased binding concentrations up through 10wt% BCP:DNA-CTMA. This apparent binding affinity of DNA-CTMA for BCP also resulted in a significantly higher (6x) photoluminescence in thin film form when compared to BCP:PMMA films of the same doping concentration.
Purified deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), derived from salmon milt and roe sacs, waste products of the Japanese fishing industry in Hokkaido, has been processed into a promising, optical waveguide quality, biopolymer material suitable for both passive and active optical and electro-optic applications. Intercalation of aromatic compounds into stacked layers within the double helix of DNA molecules has rendered active optical waveguide materials with excellent nonlinear optical properties.
A number of studies are currently focused on using polymers derived from salmon DNA as the primary ingredient in the design of optical waveguide devices. Although the long term goal is to develop optical devices for rapid chemical and biosensing, this work was aimed specifically at studying the response of a planar DNA waveguide to ammonia in nitrogen and air with controlled amounts of humidity at ambient temperatures. This follows the work of S. S. Sarkisov et al. who used PMMA and other polymer films doped with the indicator dye bromocresol purple (BCP). These devices are characterized by absorption sensitivities of the order 0.1 dB attenuation of the transmitted light signal per 100 ppm change in the NH3 concentration with response times of better than 1 ms and can be recycled with no loss of sensitivity. The performances of waveguide devices using films fabricated with high and low molecular weight DNA with BCP are compared to BCP-doped PMMA devices.
The procedure for increasing the temperature and electric field to set poling conditions for guest-host nonlinear optic polymers was evaluated. Specifically, the order of the two variables was alternated and the poling efficiency was evaluated by comparing the electro-optic coefficient, r33 for both procedures. Two host polymers, poly(methyl)methacrylate (PMMA) and poly[bisphenol A carbonate-co-4,4'(3,3,5-triethyl cyclohexylidene) diphenol] (APC) were doped with 10% (by weight) of the chromophore disperse red 1 (DR1). Single layer films were spin deposited onto a glass substrate with patterned indium tin oxide (ITO) as the bottom electrode and patterned gold as the top electrode. With the final set poling temperature and electric field held constant, each system was poled under two different poling procedures. The first procedure was to increase the temperature at a constant rate first and then increase the electric field at a constant rate to the final set poling conditions, and conversely, the second procedure was to increase the electric field at a constant rate, at room temperature, first and then increase the temperature at a constant rate to the final set poling conditions. An increase in poling efficiency was found for the 'Voltage then Temperature' procedure in both guest-host systems with an increase in r33 values of 38% to 43%. While this dramatic increase is not expected for every system, it shows that there is an additional variable of poling procedure that can be modified for enhancing the efficiency of poling.
Optical materials for waveguiding applications must possess the desired optical and electromagnetic properties for optimal device performance. Purified deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), derived from salmon sperm, has been investigated for use as an optical waveguide material. In this paper we present the materials processing and optical and electromagnetic characterization of this purified DNA to render a high quality, low loss optical waveguide material.
We describe a novel sensor of ammonia based on a planar optical waveguide made of a thin film of polymer polyimide doped with indicator dye bromocresol purple. The film of dye-doped polyimide demonstrated reversible increase of absorption with a peak near 600 nm in response to presence of ammonia in ambient air. Coupling of input and output optic fibers with the waveguide was done by means of coupling prisms or coupling grooves. The latter configuration has the advantage of low cost, less sensitivity to temperature variation, and the possibility of coupling from both sides of the waveguide. Special experimental setup was built to test the sensor. It included test gas chamber with sealed optic fiber feed-throughs, gas filling line, laser source, photodetector, and signal processing hardware and software. The sensor was capable of detecting 100 ppm of ammonia in air within 8 seconds. Further increase of sensitivity can be achieved by adding more dye dopant to the polymer, increase of the length of the waveguide, and suppression of noise. Overexposure of the sensor to more than 5000 ppm of ammonia led to the saturation of the polymer film and, as a result, significant decrease of sensitivity and increase of the response time. The sensor can be used as low cost component of a distributed optical network of chemical sensors for monitoring presence of hazardous industrial pollutants in air.
When one thinks of suitability in space environments, irradiation tolerance typically is the first property that comes to mind. In addition to irradiation tolerance, however, suitable photonic materials must also possess the desired optical and electromagnetic properties for optimal device performance. Extracted and purified deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), derived from salmon, has been investigated for use in photonic applications and has shown promise as an excellent optical waveguide material. In this paper we present the properties of DNA that are applicable for both ground and space based photonic applications. Such properties include optical loss, temperature stability, refractive index, resistivity, dielectric constant, microwave insertion loss and gamma ray irradiation tolerance.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) extracted and purified from salmon sperm was investigated for use in electro-optic devices as a cladding layer. The 500,000 molecular weight material has a refractive index less than that of common core materials such as poly(methyl)methacrylate (PMMA) and amorphous polycarbonates, shows a resistivity two orders of magnitude lower than common core materials, and shows no signs of degradation within 100°C of the host poling temperature. DNA was analyzed as a cladding material for two different chromophore systems, Disperse Red 1 (DR1), and Cheng-Larry Dalton 1 (CLD1) in a PMMA guest/host system. A baseline device, comprised only of a 1.7μm layer of PMMA, was tested for non-linearity with each chromophore, with the r33 value increasing with increasing temperature and voltage. Doublestack devices included a 1μm thick DNA film as the cladding layer with the baseline core layer above. Based on the dielectric properties of DNA, values of r33 were calculated for the theoretical behavior of the devices. The recorded r33 values were accurate within 5% of the calculated values with the DR1 chromophore, and within 20% with the CLD1 chromophore, hence showing good device reproducibility.
Highly purified deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was isolated from salmon and scallop sperm by an enzymatic isolation process. Characterization of the optical and electromagnetic properties of DNA suggested suitability for optical waveguide applications. One of the characteristic features of DNA we discovered was an intercalation of aromatic compounds into stacked layers within the double helix of DNA molecules. We found that various optical dyes inserted into the double helix of DNA molecules render optical waveguide films of dye-intercalated DNA suitable for active photonic devices. Our investigation includes intercalation of fluorescent dyes, photochromic dyes, nonlinear optic chromophores, two photon dyes and rare earth compounds into DNA comparing results with poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) based materials.
Nonlinear optic (NLO) polymer based electro-optic devices have been achieving world record low half wave voltages and high frequencies over the last 2-3 years. Part of the advancement is through the use of relatively more conductive polymers for the cladding layers. Based on the current materials available for these cladding materials, however, the desired optical and electromagnetic properites are being balanced for materials processability. One does not want the solvent present in one layer to dissovle the one deposited underneath, or be dissolved by the one being deposited on top. Optimized polymer cladding materials, to further enhance device performance, are continuing to be investigated. Thin films of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), derived from salmon sperm, show promise in providing both the desired optical and magnetic properties, as well as the desired resistance to various solvents used for NLO polymer device fabrication. Thin films of DNA were deposited on glass and silicon substrates and the film quality, optical and electromagnetic properties and resistance to various solvents were characterized.
Mach-Zehnder interferometers have been the primary type of architecture for construction of polymeric electro-optic modulators. Recent attention has been given to electro-optic modulators in the reflection geometry as well as modulators that employ a resonant cavity to enhance activity or provide for modulator compactness. Most efforts have focused on the Attenuated Total Refelction (ATR) modulators which utilize a guided surface plasmon mode for providing sharply defined angles of incidence at which intesity modulation can be efficiently achieved. This is also the basis of many sensign devices where in both modulation and sensing an active region is placed adjacent to the metal guide. In this work we focus on alternative optical scheems to the ATR for modulation and sensing as well as the possibility of enhanced ATR activity. Resonant cavities are formed using photonic crystals or leaky wave structures which offer the possibiilty of efficient modulation and sensing.
Optical, electrical, processability, and film casting characteristics of various conductive cladding layers were investigated. The goal was to find conductive polymer cladding materials suitable for fabricating and optimizing waveguide electro-optic modulators. Using cladding material that is more conductive than the core material, the poling fields in the core will be maximized, realizing a maximum electro-optic coefficient, which reduces the operating voltage in waveguide electro-optic modulators. We found, however, that there are tradeoffs between absorption losses, conductivity, refractive index, materials processability and materials compatibility when using off-the-shelf materials.
Optoelectronic devices based on nonlinear optic (NLO) polymers, with electro-optic (EO) coefficients in excess of 100 pm/V at 1.06 μm and dielectric constants of < 3, have demonstrated 100+ GHz data rates with less than 4 volt operating voltages. This has gained interest from the space based applications community, since in addition to being tolerant to a space environment, electro-optic devices for space applications will also need to operate at high data rates and at low operational powers. We have investigated various NLO polymers for core materials as well as passive polymers with various conductivities, both ionic and electronic, suitable for use as optical cladding layers in NLO polymer based opto-electronic devices. Our goal was to find materials that would be tolerant to irradiation as well as maximizing the nonlinearity of the NLO core material, thus minimizing the total applied poling voltage, and minimize the optical absorption loss. Using a cladding material that is more conductive than the NLO core material, the majority of the applied poling voltage is dropped across the core, thus maximizing the EO coefficient with minimum applied voltage or power. We found, however, that it is necessary to balance the optical and electromagnetic properties of the materials with their processability and compatibility.
For accurate design and modeling of nonlinear optic polymer electro-optic (EO) waveguide devices, potential materials need to be thoroughly characterized. Presented here are the properties of several state of the art materials used for nonlinear optical (NLO) polymer devices, such as Cheng Larry Dalton (CLD) based NLO polymers as well as conductive polymers and epoxies. This characterization includes refractive index, propagation loss, conductivity, nonlinearity, and low and high frequency dielectric constant measurements, as well as materials compatibility.
We report on a single-arm double-mode waveguide interferometer being used as a chemical sensor for detection of presence of ammonia and other pollutants in ambient air. The sensor is based on thin films of polymers such as poly(methyl methacrylate) and polymide doped with various indicator dyes such as bromocresol purple. These dye-doped polymer materials significantly increase their optical absorbance in the presence of the pollutants. The absorbance change is accompanied by the change of the refractive index of the materials in the region of optical transmittance. The change of the refractive index can be converted into a change of the light intensity in the single arm interferometer. The sensor employs interference between two propagating modes of the same polarization. Single-arm configuration makes it rigid but yet sensitive enough to detect concentrations of ammonia of the order of 10 ppm and less. The device also exhibits high sensitivity to ambient temperature change (of the order of 1 degree(s)C per 2(pi) -phase shift). We analyze effects of various factors such as polymer composition, light wavelength, ambient humidity and atmospheric pressure on the performance of the sensor. Various design and fabrication issues are also discussed. The problem of particular interest is coupling the sensor to the optical fiber transmission line, reduction of losses and sensitivity improvement.
We demonstrate theoretically and experimentally that initially Gaussian optical beam sent through the (pi) -step phase mask and launched into a thin film of polymer poly(methyl methacrylate) doped with laser dye 4- (Dicyanomethylene)-2-methyl-6-(p-dimethylaminostryl(4H-pyran known as DCM evolves into a spatial structure similar to the dark spatial soliton. This takes place due to the third order nonlinearity associated with the mechanism of unconverted photobleaching of the dye-doped polymer. The result of the structuring of the beam is the formation of a permanent pattern of the refractive index of the film that acts as a channel waveguide trapping a weak Gaussian probe beam coaxial with the main beam. We also demonstrate theoretically the possibility of trapping the probe beam, which propagates in opposite direction at an angle to the main beam. The proposed theoretical model is nonlocal in time and is based on the Shrodinger-type nonlinear propagation equation for the main beam and the propagation equation for the probe beam complemented by the rate equation for the light-induced decrease of the refractive index. The results of this study can find application in optical interconnects and data processing.
We report on optical beam self-action in a waveguide made of poly(methyl methacrylate) doped with laser dye DCM upon its upconverted photobleaching produced by radiation of a low power CW He-Ne laser. Nonlinear effects of self-action produce spatially stable beam structures usually interpreted as dark spatial solitons in media with negative Kerr-like nonlinearity. We demonstrate experimentally that the proposed mechanism of self-action is more likely upconverted photobleaching, i.e. photobleaching by short wavelength radiation resulting from frequency upconversion of the primary red laser light. Upconversion is not a multi-photon process. It possibly occurs as a result of inhomogeneous line broadening and excitation of thermally populated higher vibrational energy states in the ground state of the dye molecules. Theoretical model of beam propagation is based on the Shrodinger-type nonlinear propagation equation complemented by the rate equation for photobleaching. The result of simulations are in good agreement with experimental data. Possible applications of the studied effects include photonic switching and optical interconnects.
Single arm dual mode optical waveguide interferometer utilizes interference between two modes of different order. Sensing effect results from the change in traveling conditions of the modes caused by the environment. The waveguide is made as an open asymmetric structure containing a dye-doped high temperature polyimide film onto a silica substrate. It is more sensitive to the change of environment than its conventional polarimetric analog using orthogonal modes (TE and TM) of the same order. The sensor still preserves the option of operating in polarimetric regime using a variety of mode combinations such as TE0/TM0 (conventional), TE0/TM1, TE1/TM0, or TE1/TM1 but can also work in nonpolarimetric regime using combinations TE0/TE1 or TM0/TM1. Experimental temperature sensor based on TE0/TE1 combination demonstrates 2(pi) -phase shift between interfering modes in response to 2 degree Celsius-change of the ambient temperature. Utilization of different mode combinations simultaneously makes the device more versatile. Application of the sensor to gas sensing is based on doping polymer film with an organic indicator dye targeting a particular gaseous reagent. Change of the optical absorption spectrum of the dye caused by the gas results in change of the reactive index of the dye-doped polymer film which is detected by the sensor. We propose to use indicator dyes based on temperature durable metal substituted phthalocyanines (such as Octadecyloxy copper phthalocynaine) which demonstrates a significant change of the absorption spectrum being exposed to acidulous or alkaline atmosphere. We discuss the design of the experimental gas chamber for testing the interferometer as a NOX sensor.
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