Silicon diodes with large aspect ratio microstructures backfilled with 6LiF show a dramatic increase in neutron
detection efficiency beyond that of conventional thin-film coated planar devices. Described in this work are
advancements in the technology with increased microstructure depths and detector stacking methods that work to
increase thermal-neutron detection efficiency. An individual 4-cm2 MSND was fabricated. A stacked 4-cm2 MSND
was fabricated by coupling two detectors back-to-back, along with counting electronics, into a single detector. The
individual MSND delivered 16% intrinsic thermal-neutron detection efficiency and the stacked MSND delivered 32%
intrinsic thermal-neutron detection efficiency. The intrinsic thermal-neutron detection efficiency depends strongly upon
the geometry, size, and depth of the silicon microstructures. This work is part of on-going research to develop solid-state
semiconductor neutron detectors with high neutron detection efficiencies.
Despite the outstanding scintillation performance characteristics of CeBr3 and LaBr3:Ce, commercial availability and
application is limited due to the difficulties with crystal growth of large, crack-free single crystals of these fragile
materials. Aliovalent doping was employed to strengthen CeBr3 in an effort to ease crystal growth constraints and
improve ingot yields. Six divalent (Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Zn2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+) and two tetravalent cations (Zr4+ and Hf4+)
were investigated as dopants to strengthen CeBr3 without negatively impacting scintillation performance. Ingots
containing nominal concentrations of 500ppm and 1000ppm of each dopant were grown. Fluorimetry, preliminary
scintillation, and preliminary fracture toughness measurements are presented for these aliovalently-doped scintillators.
While Ca2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, and Hf4+ all exhibited little or no change in the peak fluorescence emission for 300nm
excitation, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, and Zr4+ exhibited varying degrees of red-shifting. As expected, Pb2+ had a drastic
detrimental effect on scintillation. Initial microindentation data indeed indicates a noticeable increase in the fracture
toughness of the doped crystals as compared to undoped CeBr3.
Silicon diodes with large aspect ratio perforated microstructures backfilled with 6LiF show a dramatic increase in neutron
detection efficiency beyond that of conventional thin-film coated planar devices. Described in this work are
advancements in the technology with increased microstructure depths and detector stacking methods that work to
increase thermal-neutron detection efficiency. Models for ion energy deposition and intrinsic thermal-neutron detection
efficiency for the straight trench design are described and results presented. A dual stacked device was fabricated by
coupling two detectors back-to-back, along with counting electronics, into a single detector. Experimentally verified
results and modeled predictions are compared. The stacked device delivered 37% intrinsic thermal-neutron detection
efficiency, lower than the predicted value of 47%. It was determined that this lower observed efficiency is due to
detector misalignment in the stacked structure and ballistic deficit from slow charge collection from the deep trench
structures. The intrinsic thermal-neutron detection efficiency depends strongly upon the geometry, size, and depth of the
perforated microstructures. This work is part of on-going research to develop solid-state semiconductor neutron detectors
with high detection efficiencies.
A 4.7×4.7×9.5 mm3 Frisch collar device was fabricated from CdZnTe materials grown by the Traveling Heater
Method (THM). The device was then characterized through probing with a highly collimated 662 keV gammaray
source of 137Cs. In a systematic series of experiments, the detector, at its best design, was probed using a
collimated 137Cs source. The results were confirmed through simulating the charge collection efficiency (CCE)
maps of the device under the operated condition. It is proved that, unlike the planar configuration, the charge
collection efficiency profile along the length of Frisch collar device is considerably improved. It is also shown
that enhancement in spectral performance occurs due to the application of the Frisch collar to a planar device.
This enhancement is due to the fact that the Frisch collar alters the nonuniform CCE profile in a planar device
to a more uniform distribution in a Frisch collar device. Additionally, a technique to optimize this uniform
distribution is investigated for a 5.0 × 4.7 × 19.6 mm3 Frisch collar device, while the experimental results
are confirmed though numerical simulation. Based on this technique, there exists an optimum dielectric layer
thickness for the CdZnTe Frisch collar device, for which the CCE profile has its best (most uniform) distribution
and shows its best spectroscopic performance. The CdZnTe materials for this study were grown by THM at
Redlen Technologies and the CdZnTe devices were fabricated and characterized at the S.M.A.R.T. Laboratory
at Kansas State University.
Perforated semiconductor diode detectors have been under development for several years at Kansas State University for
a variety of neutron detection applications. The fundamental device configuration is a pin diode detector fabricated from
high-purity float-zone refined Si wafers. Perforations are etched into the diode surface with inductively-coupled plasma
reactive ion etching and backfilled with 6LiF neutron reactive material. The perforation shapes and depths can be
optimized to yield a flat response to neutrons over a wide variation of angles. The intrinsic thermal neutron detection
efficiency depends strongly upon the geometry, size, and depth of the perforations. Here three basic geometry models
are compared. The energy deposition spectra and detection efficiency are estimated for rod-shaped perforations, linear
trench perforations and for perforations leaving silicon pillars. These three designs are found to have distinct differences
in their capabilities. Besides model calculations, practical considerations for fabricating such neutron detectors are also
discussed.
Surface passivation and final surface treatment on the lateral sides of CdZnTe/CdTe gamma ray detectors have been studied by many research groups. However, systematic studies of spectroscopic performance and the current voltage (I-V) characteristic behavior of devices as a result of surface treatments have not been conducted. Additionally, few studies report results for high energy gamma ray detection, which requires different techniques and technologies. In this study, a variety of final surface treatments and oxidizing agents have been applied on different CdZnTe detectors, and the effects on the I-V characteristic behavior and spectral performance of Frisch collar devices at 662 keV are reported. Further, the possibility of an alternative method is investigated, in which ion milling is utilized to etch the lateral surfaces with energetic ions of Xenon. The process is described in detail and the challenges are presented. Electron Microprobe (EMP) technique was performed on the device sides to determine the surface elements using Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) before and after each treatment. The CdZnTe materials for this study were acquired from Redlen Technologies, and the CdZnTe devices were fabricated and characterized for each treatment at the S.M.A.R.T. Laboratory at Kansas State University.
Growth of mercuric iodide platelets in horizontal furnaces with the addition of polyethylene powder has been analyzed
with a 23 full factorial analysis. The factors investigated were the temperature gradient between the zones, the
source/hot zone temperature, and the amount of polyethylene powder. The crystallization zone length was chosen as
the observable. Normal probability and Lenth's plots were used to analyze the effects. Both plots show that the
temperature gradient is an active effect.
Lanthanum and cerium bromides and chlorides form isomorphous alloy systems with the UCl3
type structure. These scintillating alloys exhibit high luminosity and proportional response, making
them the first scintillators comparable to room temperature semiconductors for gamma spectroscopy;
Ce(III) activated lanthanum bromide has recently enabled scintillating gamma ray spectrometers
with < 3% FWHM energy resolutions at 662 keV. However brittle fracture of these materials
impedes development of large volume crystals. Low fracture stress and perfect cleavage along
prismatic planes cause material cracking during and after crystal growth. These and other properties
pose challenges for material production and post processing; therefore, understanding mechanical
behavior is key to fabricating large single crystals, and engineering of robust detectors and systems.
Recent progress on basic structure and properties of the lanthanide halides is reported here,
including thermomechanical and thermogravimetric analyses, hygroscopicity, yield strength, and
fracture toughness. Observations including reversible hydrate formation under atmospheric pressure,
loss of stoichiometry at high temperature, anisotropic thermal expansion, reactivity towards common
crucible materials, and crack initiation and propagation under applied loads are reported. The
fundamental physical and chemical properties of this system introduce challenges for material
processing, scale-up, and detector fabrication.
Analysis of the symmetry and crystal structure of this system suggests possible mechanisms for
deformation and crack initiation under stress. The low c/a ratio and low symmetry relative to
traditional scintillators indicate limited and highly anisotropic plasticity cause redistribution of
residual process stress to cleavage planes, initiating fracture. This proposed failure mechanism and
its implications for scale up to large diameter crystal growth are also discussed.
Tellurium (Te) is purified using a multistage vacuum distillation technique. Specially designed quartz ampoules
coupled to a 10-6 torr vacuum system are used for one, two, and three stage distillations. The unique quartz design
allows removal of residual materials between stages without handling purified material or exposing it to atmospheric
conditions. Average deposition of purified material is 0.93 g/min at a distillation temperature of 525°C. The
average overall yield per stage is 84% for single stage distillation, 80% for two stages, and 76% for three stages.
Glow discharge mass spectrometry testing (GDMS) is used to analyze samples of purified tellurium. GDMS results
show 6N purity (99.9999%) is achieved after the three stage distillation process when starting with 4N+ pure
material.
The effects of crystal geometry and aspect ratio on a CdZnTe Frisch collar device were investigated. A
19.08x19.34x4.95mm3 device fabricated from CdZnTe grown by Redlen Technologies was used as the starting material.
The crystal was re-fabricated many times to achieve several aspect ratios while the device length was held constant at
4.75±0.15mm. The following aspect ratios were successfully fabricated from the initial device: 0.26, 0.52, 0.71, 0.96,
1.19, 1.36, 1.59 and 1.92. The energy spectra of 241Am and 137Cs were recorded for all devices in both planar and Frisch
collar configurations. The current-voltage (I-V) characteristic curve was also determined for planar configurations. It was
observed that the Frisch collar effect begins to occur for devices with an aspect ratio of approximately 1.0. Device
performance continued to improve as the aspect ratio was further increased and was noted to significantly improve the
energy resolution of the device when the aspect ratio was greater than 1.5. The CdZnTe devices were also theoretically
modeled to support the experimental conclusion.
Perforated semiconductor diode detectors have been under development for several years at Kansas State University for
a variety of neutron detection applications. The fundamental device configuration is a pin diode detector fabricated from
high-purity float zone refined Si wafers. Perforations are etched into the diode surface with inductively-coupled plasma
(ICP) reactive ion etching (RIE) and backfilled with 6LiF neutron reactive material. The perforation shapes and depths
can be optimized to yield a flat response to neutrons over a wide variation of angles. The prototype devices delivered
over 3.8% thermal neutron detection efficiency while operating on only 15 volts. The highest efficiency devices thus far
have delivered over 12% thermal neutron detection efficiency. The miniature devices are 5.6 mm in diameter and require
minimal power to operate, ranging from 3.3 volts to 15 volts, depending upon the amplifying electronics. The battery
operated devices have been incorporated into compact modules with a digital readout. Further, the new modules have
incorporated wireless readout technology and can be monitored remotely. The neutron detection modules can be used for
neutron dosimetry and neutron monitoring. When coupled with high-density polyethylene, the detectors can be used to
measure fission neutrons from spontaneous fission sources. Monto Carlo analysis indicates that the devices can be used
in cargo containers as a passive search tool for spontaneous fission sources, such as 240Pu. Measurements with a 252Cf
source are being conducted for verification.
Micro-Pocket Fission Detectors (MPFD) have been developed as real-time in-core neutron flux monitors. Tests have demonstrated linear operation with neutron flux varying through six orders of magnitude while surviving neutron fluences greater than 1016 n.cm-2. Their design is naturally background insensitive with high signal to noise pulses. Built from alumina ceramics, these devices are relatively simple to build and are inexpensive. They have been designed for fabrication into large arrays to facilitate 3-D mapping of a reactor core.
New data regarding performance studies of Frish-grid CdZnTe (CZT) detectors are presented. The Frisch-grid detector configuration under investigation is a bar shaped CZT crystal with teh side surfaces coated with an insulating layer. A Frisch grid is fashioned by inserting the CZT bar into a metallic sleeve, or by depositing the metal directly upon the insulator; hence the semiconductor material does not come in contact with the metal grid. The simple design operates well as a single-carrier-sensitive device. Despite the simplicity of this device, its performance depends on the balanced combinations of several factors, including the bulk and surface conductivity, μτ product, and geometrical aspect ratio. Described are several effects that determine charge collection in such drift devices and, consequently, the performance of the non-contacting Frisch-grid configuration.
Miniaturized Micro-Pocket Fission Detectors (MPFD) are under investigation as real-time neutron flux monitors. The devices are capable of performing near-core and in-core reactor power measurements. The basic design utilizes neutron reactive material confined within a miniaturized gas pocket, similar to that of a fission chamber. Device size ranges from 500 microns to a few millimeters thick, thereby allowing them to be inserted directly between fuel elements of a reactor core. Fabricated from inexpensive ceramic materials, the detectors can be fashioned into a linear array to facilitate 3-D mapping of a reactor core neutron flux profile in "real-time". Initial tests have shown these devices to be extremely radiation hard and potentially capable of operating in a neutron fluence exceeding 1016 n cm-2 without noticeable degradation.
Semiconductor based thermal neutron detectors provide a compact technology for neutron detection and imaging. Such devices can be produced by externally coating semiconductor charged particle detectors with neutron reactive films that convert free neutrons into charged-particle reaction products. Commonly used films for such devices utilize the 10B(n,a)7Li reaction or the 6Li(n,a)3H reaction, which are attractive due to the relatively high energies imparted to the reaction products. Unfortunately, thin film or "foil" type thermal neutron detectors suffer from self-absorption effects that ultimately limit neutron detection efficiency. Design considerations that maximize the efficiency and performance of such devices are discussed. Linear arrays fabricated from thin-film-coated pixel detectors are presented with results.
Measurements with 60 keV gamma-rays from a 241Am check source show that most of the volume of a trapezoidal Frisch grid device is active and operates as a detector. Measurements were performed on a trapezoidal device constructed from 'counter grade' CdZnTe material, which despite the lower quality of the starting material still demonstrated excellent energy resolution at relatively high gamma ray energies. The energy resolution was comprised at low energies, most likely due to surface effects and material non-uniformities. Models indicate that performance can be improved with very straightforward and simple design changes.
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