An interface has been developed to capture frames taken by X-ray array imagers up to 64×64 pixels. An application
specific integrated circuit (ASIC) designed solely for X-ray flat panel imaging readout circuitry, manufactured by
FLIR® called Indigo (also known as ISC9717), was used as part of charge-amplifier block. An Altera Cyclone II FPGA
is used to serve three purposes: Create pulses required for gate-driver block, Receive fast-stream data coming from the
Indigo chip, and Send data through RS-232 protocol over a serial cable to a personal computer.
Initial results for a 32×32 passive pixel sensor (PPS) with lateral amorphous Selenium metal-semiconductor-metal
(MSM) photodetector were presented in [1]. This work focuses more on methods used to improve the images obtained
from the array. Sharper images produced in sync with the light source are presented. In addition, insight into array
readout circuitry and capturing a frame from an array is discussed.
Previously, metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) lateral amorphous selenium (a-Se) detectors have been proposed for
indirect detector medical imaging applications. These detectors have raised interest due to their high-speed and
photogain. The gain measured from these devices was assumed to have been photoconductive gain; however the origin
of this gain was not fully understood. In addition, whether or not there was any presence of photocurrent multiplication
gain was not investigated. For integration-type applications photocurrent multiplication gain is desirable since the total
collected charge can be greater than the total number of absorbed photons. In order to fully appreciate the value of MSM
devices and their benefit for different applications, whether it is counting or integration applications, we need to
investigate the responsible mechanisms of the observed response. In this paper, we systematically study, through
experimental and theoretical means, the nature of the photoresponse and its responsible mechanisms. This study also
exposes the possible means to increase the performance of the device and under what conditions it will be most
beneficial.
Previously, we reported on a single-pixel detector based on a lateral a-Se metal-semiconductor-metal structure, intended
for indirect conversion X-ray imaging. This work is the continuous effort leading to the first prototype of an indirect
conversion X-ray imaging sensor array utilizing lateral amorphous selenium. To replace a structurally-sophisticated
vertical multilayer amorphous silicon photodiode, a lateral a-Se MSM photodetector is employed which can be easily
integrated with an amorphous silicon thin film transistor passive pixel sensor array. In this work, both 2×2 macro-pixel
and 32×32 micro-pixel arrays were fabricated and tested along with discussion of the results.
Silicon nanowire photodetectors were fabricated for large area digital imaging applications. An array of silicon
nanowires fabricated by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) was incorporated into lateral metalsemiconductor-
metal (MSM) photodetectors with 2 μm electrode spacing. A collection efficiency of up to 0.36 and responsivity of 0.136 was measured using an applied bias of -10V. The rise time in response to a blue LED light source was measured to be 35.2 μs.
In indirect digital x-ray detectors, photodetectors such as hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) p-i-n photodetectors
are used to convert the optical photons generated by the scintillating material to collectible electron-hole
pairs. A problem that arises during the collection of the charges is that the mobility and lifetime of both types
of carriers (electrons and holes) differ. In a-Si:H, the mobility of holes is much lower than that of electrons which
leads to depth-dependent signal variations and causes the charge collection time to be extensive. It has been
shown that the use of a Frisch grid can reduce the effect of the slower carriers in direct x-ray detectors. The
Frisch grid is essentially a conducting grid that shields carriers from the collecting electrode until they are in close
proximity. When the pixel electrodes are properly biased, the grid prevents the slow moving carriers (traveling
away from the collecting electrode) from being collected and puts more weight on the fast moving carriers, thus
allowing the total charge to be collected in less time.
In this paper we investigate the use of a Frisch grid in a-Si:H p-i-n photodetectors for indirect x-ray detectors.
Through simulations and theoretical analysis we determine the grid line sizes and positioning that will be most
effective for practical p-i-n photodetector designs. In addition we compare the results of photodetectors with
and without the grid to characterize the improvement achievable.
KEYWORDS: Photodetectors, Electrodes, Selenium, Sensors, Gamma ray imaging, Photomultipliers, Crystals, X-ray imaging, X-ray detectors, Signal to noise ratio
We propose a new indirect x-ray and gamma-ray detector which is comprised of a scintillating crystal coupled with an
amorphous selenium (a-Se) metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetector. A lateral Frisch grid is embedded
between the anode and the cathode to provide (1) unipolar charge sensing and (2) avalanche multiplication gain during
hole transport inside the detection region. Unipolar charge sensing operation reduces the persistent photocurrent lag and
increases the speed of the photodetector because most of the pixel charge is induced during carrier transport inside the detection region. Also, with proper biasing of the electrodes, we can create a high-field region between the lateral Frisch grid and the cathode for avalanche multiplication gain. Thus, we can convert the photodetector into a photomultiplier for higher signal-to-noise ratio and single photon-counting gamma-ray imaging. We present for the first time, a fabricated amorphous selenium lateral Frisch photodetector and present preliminary results of the measured photocurrents in response to a blue light emitting diode.
Thick amorphous selenium (a-Se) as an excellent photoconductor has been used in direct conversion X-ray imaging modalities such as mammography. However, due to substantial charge trapping, such detectors experience a long X-ray response time and as a result, suffer from a slow speed of operation. Therefore, its deployment to speed-required applications such as real-time fluoroscopy remains a challenge. In this work, we aim to investigate a lateral a-Se MSM
photodetector as an indirect conversion X-ray imager and its utilization in high speed, high energy medical applications.
The dark current density of the newly-fabricated detector is below 20 pA/mm2 for a 200 μm×50 μm pixel pitch at electric
field strengths ranging from 6 to 12 V/μm. The photoresponsivity reaches up to 2.3A/W towards blue wavelength of 468
nm at an electric field strength of 20 V/μm. Furthermore, the photocurrent has a fast speed of photoresponse, demonstrating rise time, fall time and time constant of 50 μs, 60 μs and 30 μs, respectively. Given that low dark current and high photoresponsivity this detector holds, coupled with fast photoresponse, it is believed that lateral a-Se MSM photodetector is promising for indirect conversion X-ray imager integrated with either CMOS or TFT arrays.
Amorphous selenium (a-Se) has been widely used as a direct conversion X-ray detection material. Vertical structures are
employed in most cases, where >200 μm thick a-Se photoconductor layer is inserted between top and bottom electrodes.
In this paper, we design a lateral metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) structure in which a relatively thin layer of a-Se (~
8 μm) is coated on top of two lateral electrodes. The simulation results indicate that dark current of such a structure stays
extremely low level and external quantum efficiency (EQE) reaches over 30% with wavelengths ranging from 320 to
680 nm. We further fabricate the lateral MSM photoconductor by a two-mask photolithography process. The fabricated
photoconductor exhibits a dark current below 40 fA under electric fields ranging from 6 V/μm to 9 V/μm, a responsivity
up to 0.06 A/W, a measured EQE of 18% towards a short wavelength of 468 nm, and a high photoresponse speed at 500
Hz with a rise time of 250 μs, fall time of 350 μs, and time constant of 250 μs, respectively. Furthermore, an architecture
of indirect conversion X-ray imager is proposed with the use of such a lateral MSM structure and a blue-emitting
scintillator material atop.
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