A standoff biothreat detection and identification system for scanning large areas was designed, built and tested. The sensor is based on two wavelength ultraviolet light induced fluorescence (UVLIF) measured from a distance. The concept calls for multiple sensor modalities, fused to give the required overall performance. It makes use of multiple cameras, ambient light reflectance, high optical power and wavelength modulated UV LED illumination and synchronized fluorescence detection. A two-step operational mode is described along with results from independent demonstrations for each step. The first step is screening of the scene to recognize the surfaces that maximize the chances of biothreat detection and classification. This step used computer vision and artificial intelligence (semantic segmentation) for automation. The material constituting the surface is identified from color images. A second monochrome camera gives total “fluorescence” images excited with an intensity modulated 368nm UV illuminator. The second demonstration is scanning of slides (the “scene” in this case) from 1.2m away, threat detection (the spots on the slides) and classification via active multispectral fluorescence imaging at two different excitation wavelengths (280 and 368nm) and ambient light reflectance at up to 0.5m2/min. It is primarily the surface characteristics that drive the difficulty of the detection and classification of biological warfare agents (BWAs) on surfaces, along with the amount of BWA present on the surface. This presentation details the results obtained, the lessons learned and the envisioned way ahead.
Although there is a well-developed commercial offering for the detection of gaseous emissions in natural gas infrastructures, the same does not exist in the transport or transformation of liquid petroleum products. In the case of aromatics, UV DOAS using lamps and retroreflectors are amongst the only choices, along with UV-DIAL. But these are limited in sensitivity and depend on long absorption paths or are very complex. There are also large airborne lidars for the detection of liquid hydrocarbon spills on water or land that rely on UV induced fluorescence (LIF). But there is a lack of simple techniques for the remote detection of vapor plumes or spills involving liquid petroleum products. There have been proposals for the use of UV enhanced Raman for the detection of vapor plumes, but these require large laser powers and detection optics for poor sensitivity. On the other hand, recent developments in UV LEDs allows for simple techniques in the detection of aromatics, benzene and toluene in particular. These are found in most liquid petroleum products. Using these new commercially available UV LEDs and a gas correlation spectrometer set-up, benzene vapor is measured using the electronic transition at 258.9 nm and at other deep UV wavelengths. It is shown that while there is significant fluorescence in liquid benzene, oxygen in air severely quenches the fluorescence of the vapor phase benzene, rendering fluorescence unusable for the standoff detection of the vapor phase. Various implementations of standoff benzene/toluene detection using UV LEDs and gas correlation are discussed, along with pros and cons of the technique.
This paper presents a study of different approaches to the measurement of the above ground vapor plume created by the spill caused by a small 0.1 l/min (or less) leak in an underground liquid petroleum pipeline. The scenarios are those for the measurement from an airborne platform. The usual approach is that of IR absorption, but in the case of liquid petroleum products, there are drawbacks that will be discussed, especially when using alkanes to detect a leak. The optical measurements studied include UV enhanced Raman lidar, UV fluorescence lidar and IR absorption path integrated lidars. The breadboards used for testing the different approaches will be described along with the set-ups for leak simulation. Although IR absorption would intuitively be the most sensitive, it is shown that UV-Raman could be an alternative. When using the very broad alkane signature in the IR, the varying ground spectral reflectance are a problem. It is also determined that integrated path measurements are preferred, the UV enhanced Raman measurements showing that the vapor plume stays very close to the ground.
Recent advances in the INO broadband SWIR/MWIR spectroscopic lidar will be presented. The system is designed for the detection of gaseous pollutants via active infrared differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS). Two distinctive features are a sub-nanosecond PPMgO:LN OPG capable of generating broadband (10 to <100 nm FWHM) and tunable (1.5 to 3.8 μm) SWIR/MWIR light, and an in-house gated MCT-APD focal plane array used in the output plane of a grating spectrograph. The operation consists in closely gating the returns from back-scattering off topographic features, and is thus, for now, a path integrated measurement. All wavelengths are emitted and received simultaneously, for low concentration measurements and DOAS fitting methods are then applied. The OPG approach enables the generation of moderate FWHM continua with high spectral energy density and tunable to absorption features of many molecules. Recent measurements demonstrating a minimum sensitivity of 10 ppm-m for methane around 3.3 μm with ∼ 2 mW average power in less than 10 seconds will be described. Results of enhancements to the laser source using small or large bandwidth seeds constructed from telecom off-the-shelf components indicate that the OPG output spectral energy density can have controllable spectral widths and shapes. It also has a slightly more stable spectral shape from pulse to pulse than without the seed (25 % enhancement). Most importantly, the stabilized output spectra will allow more sensitive measurements.
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is a mature technology that overcomes the diffraction limit of an imaging system’s real
aperture by taking advantage of the platform motion to coherently sample multiple sections of an aperture much larger than the physical one. Synthetic Aperture Lidar (SAL) is the extension of SAR to much shorter wavelengths (1.5 μm vs 5 cm). This new technology can offer higher resolution images in day or night time as well as in certain adverse
conditions. It could be a powerful tool for Earth monitoring (ship detection, frontier surveillance, ocean monitoring)
from aircraft, unattended aerial vehicle (UAV) or spatial platforms. A continuous flow of high-resolution images
covering large areas would however produce a large amount of data involving a high cost in term of post-processing
computational time. This paper presents a laboratory demonstration of a SAL system complete with image reconstruction based on optronic processing. This differs from the more traditional digital approach by its real-time processing capability. The SAL system is discussed and images obtained from a non-metallic diffuse target at ranges up to 3m are shown, these images being processed by a real-time optronic SAR processor origiinally designed to reconstruct SAR images from ENVISAT/ASAR data.
A broadband SWIR/MWIR spectroscopic lidar for detection of gaseous pollutants in air is presented for doing
differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS). One of the distinctive parts of the lidar is the use of a picosecond
PPMgO:LN OPG (optical parametric generator) capable of generating broadband (10 to <100 nm FWHM) and tunable
(1.5 to 3.9 μm) SWIR/MWIR light. The optical source layout and properties are presented, along with a description of
the lidar breadboard. Results from indoor simulated typical operation of the lidar will be discussed, the operation
consisting in emitting the broadband coherent light along a line of sight (LOS) and measuring the back-scattering returns from of a topographic feature or aerosols. A second distinctive part is the gated MCT-APD focal plane array used in the output plane of the grating spectrograph of the lidar system. The whole of the returned spectra is measured, within a very short time gate, at every pulse and at a resolution of a few tenths to a few nm. Light is collected by a telescope with variable focus for maximum coupling of the return to the spectrograph. Since all wavelengths are emitted and received simultaneously, the atmosphere is “frozen” during the path integrated measurement and hopefully reduces the baseline drift problem encountered in many broadband scanning approaches. The resulting path integrated gas concentrations are retrieved by fitting the molecular absorption features present in the measured spectra. The use of broadband pulses of light and of DOAS fitting procedures make it also possible to measure more than one gas at a time, including interferents. The OPG approach enables the generation of moderate FWHM continua with high spectral energy density and tunable to absorption features of a great number of molecules. Proposed follow-on work and applications will also be presented.
Remote sensing or stand-off detection using controlled light sources is a well known and often used technique for
atmospheric and surface spatial mapping. Today, ground based, vehicle-borne and airborne systems are able to cover
large areas with high accuracy and good reliability. This kind of detection based on LiDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging) or active Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (DOAS) technologies, measures optical responses from
controlled illumination of targets. Properties that can be recorded include volume back-scattering, surface reflectivity,
molecular absorption, induced fluorescence and Raman scattering. The various elastic and inelastic backscattering
responses allow the identification or characterization of content of the target volumes or surfaces. INO has developed
instrumentations to measure distance to solid targets and monitor particles suspended in the air or in water in real time.
Our full waveform LiDAR system is designed for use in numerous applications in environmental or process monitoring
such as dust detection systems, aerosol (pesticide) drift monitoring, liquid level sensing or underwater bathymetric
LiDARs. Our gated imaging developments are used as aids in visibility enhancement or in remote sensing spectroscopy.
Furthermore, when coupled with a spectrograph having a large number of channels, the technique becomes active
multispectral/hyperspectral detection or imaging allowing measurement of ultra-violet laser induced fluorescence (UV
LIF), time resolved fluorescence (in the ns to ms range) as well as gated Raman spectroscopy. These latter techniques
make possible the stand-off detection of bio-aerosols, drugs, explosives as well as the identification of mineral content
for geological survey. This paper reviews the latest technology developments in active remote sensing at INO and
presents on-going projects conducted to address future applications in environmental monitoring.
This paper assesses the potential of detecting explosives (RDX, TNT, PETN, HMX, HMTD, Urea Nitrate) from a
distance with a spectroscopic lidar system. For the study, the temporal and spectral resolutions of laser induced
fluorescence lidar prototypes were enhanced. The integrated breadboards used easily available Nd:YAG laser
wavelengths (266 nm, 355 nm, and 532 nm) to remotely detect the Raman signatures induced in traces of explosives
deposited on surfaces. The spectroscopic lidar setup allows for time resolved measurements with high temporal
resolution. Raman spectra are observable, even in the presence of fluorescence. Experiments with low average laser
power (tens of mWs) have shown the unambiguous capability to detect and identify explosives at distances ranging up to
20 m. Thanks to the combination of UV wavelength for higher Raman cross-sections and efficient gated detection the
355 nm prototype yielded the best compromise. Excitation at 266 nm was expected to yield a better Raman response and
was investigated. Less than optimal laser parameters, detection efficiency and strong fluorescence reduced the signal to
noise ratio of the 266 nm signals with respect to those at 355 nm and 532 nm showing the importance of optimizing
system parameters for high sensitivity detection. Besides the description of the prototypes and an early assessment of
their performances, recommendations are also proposed to improve the instrument, leading to an efficient remote sensor
for explosives.
A SWIR/MWIR spectroscopic lidar is proposed for standoff bio-agent cloud detection using simultaneous broadband
differential scattering (DISC). Measurements and/or modeling of DISC spectra of simulants are revisited and the rational
of the SWIR/MWIR DISC approach is explained, especially in light of the LWIR DISC experiments and conclusions
done elsewhere. Preliminary results on the construction of a low power non-linear broadband source in the SWIR/MWIR
are presented. Light from a 1064-nm pump laser is passed through a period and temperature tunable PPMgO:LN Optical
Parametric Generator (OPG) to generate broadband light with a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 10 to >100 nm
in the SWIR/MWIR between 1.5 and 3.9 μm. Broadband coherent light from this source is to be emitted towards a cloud
that generates back-scattering. This source is being used in a short-range chemical remote detection breadboard, showing
the possible dual use of the setup. Light collected by the receiver telescope is coupled to a grating spectrometer and the
return signal (DISC in the proposed setup) is detected using a gated MCT-APD array in much the same way clouds are
interrogated using UV-LIF. A programmable volume of space along the laser beam path is imaged at the entrance of the
spectrometer and 320 spectral channels can be measured simultaneously, attenuating the effects of atmospheric
instabilities on DISC measurements. Proposed follow-on work will be presented.
Threats associated with bioaerosol weapons have been around for several decades and have been mostly associated with
terrorist activities or rogue nations. Up to the turn of the millennium, defence concepts against such menaces relied
mainly on point or in-situ detection technologies. Over the last 10 years, significant efforts have been deployed by
multiple countries to supplement the limited spatial coverage of a network of one or more point bio-detectors using lidar
technology. The addition of such technology makes it possible to detect within seconds suspect aerosol clouds over area
of several tens of square kilometers and track their trajectories. These additional capabilities are paramount in directing
presumptive ID missions, mapping hazardous areas, establishing efficient counter-measures and supporting subsequent
forensic investigations. In order to develop such capabilities, Defence Research and Development Canada (DRDC) and
the Chemical, Biological, Radiological-Nuclear, and Explosives Research and Technology Initiative (CRTI) have
supported two major demonstrations based on spectrally resolved Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) lidar: BioSense,
aimed at defence military missions in wide open spaces, and SR-BioSpectra, aimed at surveillance of enclosed or semienclosed
wide spaces common to defence and public security missions. This article first reviews briefly the modeling
behind these demonstration concepts. Second, the lidar-adapted and the benchtop bioaerosol LIF chambers (BSL1),
developed to challenge the constructed detection systems and to accelerate the population of the library of spectral LIF
properties of bioaerosols and interferents of interest, will be described. Next, the most recent test and evaluation (T&E)
results obtained with SR-BioSpectra and BioSense are reported. Finally, a brief discussion stating the way ahead for a
complete defence suite is provided.
Standoff detection of explosives residues on surfaces at few meters was made using optical technologies based on
Raman scattering, Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) and passive standoff FTIR radiometry. By
comparison, detection and analysis of nanogram samples of different explosives was made with a microscope
system where Raman scattering from a micron-size single point illuminated crystal of explosive was observed.
Results from standoff detection experiments using a telescope were compared to experiments using a microscope to
find out important parameters leading to the detection. While detection and spectral identification of the micron-size
explosive particles was possible with a microscope, standoff detection of these particles was very challenging due to
undesired light reflected and produced by the background surface or light coming from other contaminants. Results
illustrated the challenging approach of detecting at a standoff distance the presence of low amount of micron or submicron
explosive particles.
We have developed a small, relatively lightweight and efficient short range (<100 m) LIDAR instrument for remotely
detecting harmful bioagents. The system is based on a pulsed, eye-safe, 355 nm laser exciting aerosols which then
fluoresce with a typical spectrum. The system makes use of a novel technology for continuously monitoring for the
presence of unusual concentrations of bioaerosols at a precise remote location within the monitored area, with response
within seconds. Fluorescence is spectrally resolved over 32 channels capable of photon counting. Results show a
sensitivity level of 40 ACPLA of Bacillus Globigii, an anthrax simulant, at a distance of 100 m (assumed worst case
where 1 ppl = 1 ACPLA) considering particle sizes between 0.5 and 10 μm, with a geometric mean at 1 um. The
apparatus has been tested in the field during three test and evaluation campaigns with multiple bioagents and public
security products. Preliminary results show that the system is able to distinguish between harmful bioagents and
naturally occurring ones. A classification algorithm was successfully tested with a single type of bioagent; experiments
for daytime measurements are discussed.
During the ESA Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission, a sample canister launched from Mars will be autonomously
captured by an orbiting satellite. We present the concept and the design of an active 3D camera supporting the orbiter
navigation system during the rendezvous and capture phase. This camera aims at providing the range and bearing of a
20 cm diameter canister from 2 m to 5 km within a 20° field-of-view without moving parts (scannerless). The concept
exploits the sensitivity and the gating capability of a gated intensified camera. It is supported by a pulsed source based
on an array of laser diodes with adjustable amplitude and pulse duration (from nanoseconds to microseconds). The
ranging capability is obtained by adequately controlling the timing between the acquisition of 2D images and the
emission of the light pulses. Three modes of acquisition are identified to accommodate the different levels of ranging
and bearing accuracy and the 3D data refresh rate. To come up with a single 3D image, each mode requires a different
number of images to be processed. These modes can be applied to the different approach phases. The entire concept of
operation of this camera is detailed with an emphasis on the extreme lighting conditions. Its uses for other space
missions and terrestrial applications are also highlighted. This design is implemented in a prototype with shorter ranging
capabilities for concept validation. Preliminary results obtained with this prototype are also presented. This work is
financed by the Canadian Space Agency.
We have developed a small, relatively lightweight and efficient lidar instrument for remotely detecting and classifying
minerals. The system is based on a pulsed, eye-safe, diode pumped Nd:YAG laser, tripled (355nm) or quadrupled
(266nm), for UV excitation of minerals, which then fluoresce with a typical spectrum and lifetime. Fluorescence is
detected through a telescope / filter / fiber bundle / spectrograph / multi-channel detector system capable of photon
counting. Transmission and detection efficiency have been optimized to reduce the need for high optical excitation
energy. Detection electronics are based on gated charge integration using a multi-anode photomultiplier tube. Spectra
shown are measured in the 420 to 720 nm visible range with 355 nm laser excitation. Results show that it is relatively
easy to distinguish between vegetation and non-vegetation spectra using lifetime data. Lifetime of vegetation is
relatively short when compared to the mineral samples investigated. Although results shown are measured in a
controlled environment on the ground, the system is being developed for eventual use in a low altitude airborne
application. System parameters are presented and upgrade paths are discussed.
The design and application results of an affordable short range (less than 100 m) digital LIDAR (LIght Detection And
Ranging) system will be presented. This work was initiated because many short-range standoff detection applications
would benefit from such a system. The lidar features a fiber-based component integrated in the optical module, which
allows for hardware partial compensation of the backscattered signal losses observed at short distances due to a biaxial
configuration of the lidar optics. This is an important advantage for particle density computations. The digitized
backscattered laser signals are available for signal processing. A dedicated FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)
allows for real-time averaging of the signal waveforms captured at the maximum 50-kHz pulse repetition frequency of
the laser.
Several application-specific tests have been performed. The first of these was real-time onboard monitoring of pesticide
drift in agricultural spraying applications. The signal levels were sufficient for control of the spraying operations and
prevention of pesticide drift into sensitive areas. The second was a dust monitoring application. The lidar was installed in
a quarry and signals from dust clouds were recorded. Real-time monitoring capabilities were shown to be promising.
Other applications involving detection of solid targets in degraded visibility conditions caused by fog or snowfalls were
also tested and are discussed.
Although laser ranging and scanning sensors are widely used in a variety of industries, a sensor designed for spacecraft operations, including autonomous rendezvous, inspection and servicing remains a challenge. This is primarily due to critical requirements, including the need to have simultaneous high sampling speed, and good range and lateral resolution at both short range of a few meters and at long range of a few hundred meters. A typical LIDAR sensor is not suitable for tracking at the close-in distance, just before rendezvous, or during a critical close-up inspection, since its range resolution is in the tens of millimeters and can only be improved by averaging at the expense of speed. A laser triangulation sensor is capable of simultaneously having both high range resolution (~1mm) and high speed (~10kHz) at short distance. But the range resolution of a triangulation sensor reduces rapidly as range increases, its performance is inferior compared to a LIDAR based sensor at long range. NEPTEC TriDAR (triangulation + LIDAR) is a hybrid sensor that combines a triangulation sensor and a TOF sensor for spacecraft autonomous rendezvous and inspection. It has been developed in part from technology used in NEPTEC's OBSS (Orbiter Boom Sensor System) 3D laser camera. The OBSS LCS was used for inspection of the Shuttle tiles on STS-114. In this paper, the TriDAR design that combines triangulation and LIDAR to produce high speed and high resolution for both short and long range is described. To successfully produce this sensor for space, an athermalized optical steering system shared by the two sensors has been developed. Results from performance testing of a prototype, designed for autonomous rendezvous, are given.
This paper presents experimental results on a 70-nm-wide, quasi-continuously tunable, single-longitudinal-mode erbium-doped fiber (EDF) laser. The cavity incorporates three tunable band-pass filters; a bulk grating based tunable band-pass filter, a fiber-ring-cavity filter, and an auto-tracking saturable absorption induced grating filter generated by an un-pumped EDF. In our experiment, this laser produced a single longitudinal mode oscillation between 1510 nm and 1580 nm, an output power of 0.5 mW and a tuning step of less than 0.2 pm. Optical frequency jitter was less than 0.8 pm and the signal to source spontaneous emission ratio (S/SSE) was higher than 60 dB. A tunable single-longitudinal-mode L-band fiber laser will also be discussed in this paper.
A polarization additive pulse mode-locked stretched-pulse erbium-doped fiber ring laser with a regenerative feedback producing near transform-limited femtosecond pulses is reported. The regenerative feedback makes use of an intensity modulator driven at twice the fundamental repetition rate of the passively mode-locked fiber laser. The laser is self-starting for a limited range of pump power. The de-chirped pulses have a duration of 90 fs (FWHM) and a pulse time-bandwidth product of 0.44. The pulse energy amounts to 0.3 nJ. Pulses with nearly twice that energy could be obtained, though without self-starting capability. The laser RF power spectrum measurement yields an amplitude noise as low as 0.15% (rms) and a pulse timing jitter of 150 fs (rms). In addition, RF spectra show no relaxation oscillation in the self-starting regime.
A new implementation of the modulation phase-shift technique is presented that is well adapted for field use. The method uses measurements of modulation amplitudes to compute relative group delays (RGD). Unlike existing phase-shaft-method implementations, this technique requires no control or calibration of relative phases in the electrical domain. For RGD measurements, a broadband LED emitter - tunable filter receiver combination is used. With this simple set-up, ten RGD measurements taken at 16 different wavelength points (i.e. over 160 measurements) gave standard deviations of 2 to 6 ps. Standard fiber (non-zero dispersion shifted) lengths of over 160 km are accurately measured.
The critical aspects of signal sampling in the context of optical measurements are reviewed. A parallel is drawn between optical- and time-signal sampling, which shed light on the impact and interplay between key parameters. All key parameters have their mirror image in both pictures, time ? frequency or optical-frequency ? optical-delay. The equivalence is made specific, between optical sampling-step, resolution bandwidth, interferograms, photodetector bandwidth or laser lineshape on one hand, and sampling rate, low-pass filter, signal spectrum and signal bandwidth on the other hand, along with the conditions they should fulfill, in both pictures, given an actual setup.
A fluorescence radiation inhibition has been observed by absorption of a laser beam at a resonance of 852 nm at the
interface of a Pyrex cell containing optically thick Cesium vapor. One observes a hole of GHz magnitude at the center of
the retro-fluorescence signal associated with the lines of hyperfine structure 62P312-625112 (F =4,3). This phenomenon of
inhibition, similar to a self-reversal of spectral lines, is found in the radiation generated by pooling effect. It occurs without
a significant change in the absorption rate of laser energy. This is attributed to a coupling between atoms excited to 62P312
by laser pumping and a deposit of Cesium of atomic dimensions on the glass. At resonance, an important proportion of the
atoms excited by the laser is in the vicinity of a thin conducting film. The non-radiating transformation process of the
atomically excited energy to thermal energy is therefore favored. The interface lit by a monochromatic laser diode acts as a
stop band filter and as a secondary luminous source. The width of the filter at half-height is proportional to the density of
the atomic vapor. Sub-Doppler effects in inhibition spectral band have been observed. We present new experimental
results and a phenomenon-related study of fluorescence inhibition induced by interfaced laser.
The coherence properties of a widely tunable, multilongitudinal-mode erbium-doped fiber ring laser are investigated by
means of an extremely long-arm scanning Michelson interferometer. A return of the coherence is observed at each integer
multiple ofthe cavity length with a slowly decaying envelope over several kilometres.
We report on a new technique for measuring the cathode dark space width and the variation of ground state atomic
density within it by measuring the ionization current generated by laser photoiomzation of neutral ground state metallic
atoms. The technique is supported by a theoretical model of charge displacement in the dark space. Measurements of dark
space width with respect to pressure, current and nature of the buffer gas are presented for an uranium hollow cathode
discharge (HCD). Results of variation in density of ground state neutral uranium, in the dark space, versus current and
pressure in Xe are also given. These results are of interest when using photoiomzation currents in the HCD dark space
for laser spectroscopy, such as photoiomzation studies of refractory elements like uranium.
The wide bandwidth single color multiphoton ionization spectrum of uranium was measured in the spectral range
of Rhodamine 6G dye, using the fast ( iO sec.) pulsed optogalvanic effect generated by photoionization in the dark space
ofa hollowcathode discharge (HCD). Results indicate that for this spectral range (between 570and 610 nm) the optogalvanic
multiphoton ionization spectrum is very rich. A list of the 74 most significant photoionic lines is presented. With the help
of published levels and using three resonant or quasi-resonant photons ionization schemes, proposed assignments of these
lines are also presented. The line at 591,54 nm is a special case which is discussed in more detail.
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