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Pseudo-planar Ge-on-Si single-photon avalanche diode detector with record low noise-equivalent power
The system was configured for operation at a wavelength of 1550 nm and measurements were performed using a 26 meter long fog tunnel facility which was filled with obscurants of several different types and densities. The system was comprised of a custom-built scanning transceiver unit, fiber-coupled to a Peltier cooled InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detector. A picosecond pulsed laser was used to provide a fiber-coupled illumination wavelength of 1550 nm at an approximate average optical power level of just under 1.5 mW for all measurements.
Bespoke image processing algorithms were developed to reconstruct high resolution depth and intensity profiles of obscured targets in challenging environments with low visibilities. Such algorithms can allow for target reconstruction using low levels of optical power and shorter data acquisition times, thus enabling image acquisition in the sparse photon regime.
The optical system comprised a monostatic transceiver unit, a fiber-coupled supercontinuum laser source with a wavelength tunable acousto-optic filter (AOTF), and a fiber-coupled single-element silicon single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detector. In the optical system, the transmit and receive channels in the transceiver unit were overlapped in a coaxial optical configuration. The targets were placed in a 1.75 meter long tank, and raster scanned using two galvo-mirrors. Laboratory-based experiments demonstrate depth profiling performed with up to nine attenuation lengths between the transceiver and target. All of the measurements were taken with an average laser power of less than 1mW.
Initially, the data was processed using a straightforward pixel-wise cross-correlation of the return timing signal with the system instrumental timing response. More advanced algorithms were then used to process these cross-correlation results. These results illustrate the potential for the reconstruction of images in highly scattering environments, and to permit the investigation of much shorter acquisition time scans. These algorithms take advantage of the data sparseness under the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) and the correlation between adjacent pixels, to restore the depth and reflectivity images.
The security of most digital signature schemes relies on the assumed computational difficulty of solving certain mathematical problems. However, reports in the media have shown that certain implementations of such signature schemes are vulnerable to algorithmic breakthroughs and emerging quantum processing technologies. Indeed, even without quantum processors, the possibility remains that classical algorithmic breakthroughs will render these schemes insecure.
There is ongoing research into information-theoretically secure signature schemes, where the security is guaranteed against an attacker with arbitrary computational resources. One such approach is quantum digital signatures. Quantum signature schemes can be made information-theoretically secure based on the laws of quantum mechanics while comparable classical protocols require additional resources such as anonymous broadcast and/or a trusted authority.
Previously, most early demonstrations of quantum digital signatures required dedicated single-purpose hardware and operated over restricted ranges in a laboratory environment. Here, for the first time, we present a demonstration of quantum digital signatures conducted over several kilometers of installed optical fiber. The system reported here operates at a higher signature generation rate than previous fiber systems.
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