Diver visibility analyses and predictions, and water transparency in general, are of significant military and commercial interest. This is especially true in our current state, where ports and harbors are vulnerable to terrorist attacks from a variety of platforms both on and below the water (swimmers, divers, AUVs, ships, submarines, etc.). Aircraft hyperspectral imagery has been previously used successfully to classify coastal bottom types and map bathymetry and it is time to transition this observational tool to harbor and port security. Hyperspectral imagery is ideally suited for monitoring small-scale features and processes in these optically complex waters, because of its enhanced spectral (1-3 nm) and spatial (1-3 meters) resolutions. Under an existing NOAA project (CICORE), a field experiment was carried out (November 2004) in coordination with airborne hyperspectral ocean color overflights to develop methods and models for relating hyperspectral remote sensing reflectances to water transparency and diver visibility in San Pedro and San Diego Bays. These bays were focused areas because: (1) San Pedro harbor, with its ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, is the busiest port in the U.S. and ranks 3rd in the world and (2) San Diego Harbor is one of the largest Naval ports, serving a diverse mix of commercial, recreational and military traffic, including more than 190 cruise ships annual. Maintaining harbor and port security has added complexity for these Southern California bays, because of the close proximity to the Mexican border. We will present in situ optical data and hyperspectral aircraft ocean color imagery from these two bays and compare and contrast the differences and similarities. This preliminary data will then be used to discuss how water transparency and diver visibility predictions improve harbor and port security.
Bioluminescence emitted from marine organisms upon mechanical stimulation is an obvious military interest, as it provides a low-tech method of identifying surface and subsurface vehicles and swimmer tracks. Clearly, the development of a passive method of identifying hostile ships, submarines, and swimmers, as well as the development of strategies to reduce the risk of detection by hostile forces is relevant to Naval operations and homeland security. The measurement of bioluminescence in coastal waters has only recently received attention as the platforms and sensors were not scaled for the inherent small-scale nature of nearshore environments. In addition to marine forcing, many ports and harbors are influenced by freshwater inputs, differential density layering and higher turbidity. The spatial and temporal fluctuations of these optical water types overlaid on changes in the bioluminescence potential make these areas uniquely complex. The development of an autonomous underwater vehicle with a bioluminescence capability allows measurements on sub-centimeter horizontal and vertical scales in shallow waters and provides the means to map the potential for detection of moving surface or subsurface objects. A deployment in San Diego Bay shows the influence of tides on the distribution of optical water types and the distribution of bioluminescent organisms. Here, these data are combined to comment on the potential for threat reduction in ports and harbors.
An appropriate determination of water clarity is required by defense and security operations assessing subsurface threats compromising harbor and coastal security. For search and inspection operations involving divers, underwater imaging, and electro-optical identification (EOID) systems such as laser line-scanners, the key environmental parameter needed is the optical attenuation coefficient (directly related to diver visibility). To address this need, a scattering-attenuation meter (SAM) measuring attenuation and diver visibility was developed for integration on new compact surveying platforms such as ROVs and the REMUS and glider AUVs. The sensor is compact (18X8X6 cm3), low power, robust, and hydrodynamic with a flat sensing face. The SAM measures attenuation using a novel dual-scattering approach that solves the paradox of making high-resolution attenuation measurements over the long pathlengths required for natural waters with a compact sensor. Attenuation and visibility data is presented from San Diego harbor in coordination with video images of bottom topography collected with a REMUS vehicle, from around New York harbor with a SAM mounted in an autonomous Slocum glider, and from Narragansett Bay. Results show that 1) visibility and/or attenuation in harbor and coastal regions can change rapidly over small scales (meters), especially near the bottom, 2) turbid bottom nepheloid layers are common, 3) typical visibility and/or attenuation levels fall in a range where knowledge of visibility and/or attenuation can be essential in the decision making process for security operations, and 4) attenuation is a significantly more accurate proxy for diver visibility than backscattering.
We have investigated numerically and experimentally the scattering of a light beam by turbulence. We compare the effects of scattering by typical coastal and oceanic particulate distributions with those of turbulence-induced scattering. We find that turbulence can dominate scattering up to 5-10 degrees for the costal region and for the upper layer of the open ocean. Our preliminary experiment confirms predictions that the frequently observed in situ high values of the volume scattering function at small angles are related to scattering on turbulent inhomogeneities in seawater. The ability of turbulent flow to scaler light more than particulates at small angles affects underwater visibility. Current models of underwater visibility account only for the effects of particulates and totally ignore the effects of turbulence. Here we show, with the support of the older experimental data, that turbulence can limit the resolution to an object of size 1 m over a viewing distance of 10m for strong coastal turbulent regimes.
Remote sensing reflectances measured underwater and above- water in the Gulf of California are compared to evaluate the equivalence between methods. Each form of reflectance is also compared to concurrently measured ratios of scattering to absorption, and the mean backscattering fraction is estimated. Above-water and in-water remote sensing reflectance estimates differ by more than 20 percent, with absolute RMS difference ranging from 0.001 to 0.005. Standard deviations of estimated backscattering fractions are between 15 percent nd 20 percent of the mean at each wavelength.
A model is presented which predicts the diffuse attenuation coefficient of downwelling irradiance as a function of depth and the depth of the euphotic zone as based on the one percent level of photosynthetically active radiation from vertical profiles of spectral absorption and attenuation. The model is tested using data obtained in the Gulf of California. The modeled diffuse attenuation coefficients and PAR levels ar shown to have average errors of less than five percent when compared to the measured values.
Light scattering induced by turbulent flow in seawater has been studied and the effect of seawater turbulence on the propagation of a collimated light beam has been characterized. Our approach is to describe the interaction of light with inhomogeneities in the refractive index (IRI) by solving Maxwell's equations. This set of equations is converted into the parabolized Helmholtz equation in the case of light propagating through water with IRI. We characterize the light scattering within a water parcel by the volume scattering function (VSF). Field measurements of small-angle VSF exhibit a sharp peak which is orders of magnitude greater than that obtained from either laboratory measurements or Mie calculations for suspended particles. Our computer simulations show that the volume scattering function obtained is indeed characterized by an exponential decrease with scattering angle and is in quantitative agreement with in situ observations in the case of high temperature variance dissipation, (chi) . It appears that 0(1 degree(s)) is the upper limit of turbulent induced light scattering in the ocean.
Profiles of spectral attenuation and absorption were measured in situ with a WET Labs AC-9; scattering coefficients were calculated by difference. Closure of the absorption and scattering coefficients was obtained on this limited data set for in situ and discrete sample measurements. Centimeter-scale fine structures were observed in the vertical profiles. Total absorption coefficients were dominated by the phytoplankton component. Total attenuation coefficients were dominated by scattering although the effects of strong absorption were apparent in both the attenuation and scattering spectra. The vertical structure of absorption and scattering were not spatially coherent, nor were the vertical structures of phytoplankton and non- phytoplankton absorption. The strongest spatial coherence was observed between the non- phytoplanktonic component absorption and particle scattering coefficients. The spectral absorption coefficients of the in situ phytoplankton component exhibited decreasing blue to red absorption ratios as a function of depth and spectral flattening of the blue absorption peak indicative of photoadaptation.
In this paper we examine correction methods for the scattering error of reflecting tube absorption meters and spectrophotometers. We model the scattering error of reflecting tube absorption meters for different tube parameters and different inherent optical properties. We show that the only reasonable correction method for an absorption meter without attenuation measurements or a spectrophotometer is the method in which the measured absorption at a wavelength in the near infrared is subtracted. A better correction is obtained if attenuation is measured simultaneously and the absorption at the reference wavelength is multiplied by the ratio of the measured scattering at the measurement wavelength divided by the measured scattering coefficient at the reference wavelength. This is the proportional method. We showed that the important geometrical parameters of the reflecting tube can be obtained by a comparison of measurements and models of polystyrene beads. Finally, we examine the improvements that could be obtained if a direct scattering measurement were made simultaneously with the absorption and attenuation measurements.
We have studied temperature dependent changes of the absorption coefficient of pure water at several wavelength bands in the visible portion of the spectrum. A WET Labs Inc. nine wavelength absorption and attenuation meter (AC-9) was used to measure the absorption coefficient. We found the largest temperature dependence (0.0034 m-1 degree(s)C-1) at the longest wavelength tested (715 nm). The temperature dependence at shorter wavelengths was less than a third of that observed at 715 nm. Because of the experimental arrangement we believe that the figures obtained represent the upper bound of possible values for the temperature dependence of the absorption coefficient.
In situ absorption data collected with a reflective-tube absorption meter are presented. Various procedures for correcting the data for scattering error and for extracting chlorophyll absorption from the raw signal are explored. Based on our knowledge of the distribution of particle types and on measured backscattering, the scattering correction as a function of total scattering is found to vary significantly with depth. However, absorption in the near infrared is shown to be highly correlated with backscattering. We thus postulate that this signal is mainly due to the scattering error and possibly to absorption by dissolved substances and particles of a detrital nature. Thus, the infrared signal seems to provide a good correction for the measured a(676) to obtain chloropigment absorption. Indeed, a(676) - a(750) (corrected for water absorption and 750 temperature dependence) was found to correlate strongly with fluorescence. However, a(750) was found to be highly temperature dependent, so a(712) was chosen for this purpose in future measurements. An examination of optical microstructure in East Sound, Orcas Island, Washington showed numerous peaks with vertical dimensions of the order of tens of centimeters. These peaks may contain the majority of the biomass in the system. The relative magnitude of the a(676) - a(712) and the a(712) signals varied greatly from one peak to another and systematically with depth, presumably reflecting the nature and physiological states of the populations in the various peaks.
The in situ absorption meter, based on the reflective tube absorption meter principle in which both scattered and directly transmitted light are measured by a single receiver, was originally proposed as a alternative means to measuring in situ concentrations of chlorophyll a and phaeophytin. By measuring differential absorption between two wavelengths, 676 nm and 712 nm, a scattering correction mechanism was provided which provides accurate absorption measurements in natural waters. As the instrument design evolved six wavelengths were eventually installed to measure absorption throughout the visible and near IR spectrum. An operational overview of the instrument describes the primary optical and electrical components of the instrument and provides a basic understanding of how the absorption measurement is performed. After initial field tests, laboratory tests were performed to quantify the instrument's operational characteristics. Precision, linearity, and performance in the presence of a scattering medium were tested to determine the instrument's utility in performing in situ quantitative analysis of chlorophyll. The instrument demonstrated precision approaching 0.02 (mu) g/1 at a 7 Hz acquisition rate, excellent linearity over a 40 (mu) g/1 range, and less than two percent error in measurement accuracy under scatterer to absorber concentration ratios in excess of 1000:1.
The spectral variations of the efficiency factors for absorption, total scattering and backscattering have been computed via Mie theory using a three-layered sphere model, with the size distribution function and the spectral values of the refractive index of each layer as input parameters. When compared with the results of a model for homogeneous spherical cells (with an equivalent bulk refractive index), these theoretical predictions allow the modifications of the efficiency factors due to heterogeneities within algal cells to be assessed. Such a comparison has been performed for a coccolithophorid suspension (Emiliania huxleyi), for which the spectral values of the refractive index have been derived from the experimental absorption and scattering coefficients. While the internal structures induce insignificant modifications in absorption and only weak modifications in total scattering, they appear to be able to increase the backscattering efficiency by a factor as high as 50, depending mainly on the calcite shell thickness. The internal structures also induce spectral changes in backscattering.
We have investigated the possibility of using optical instruments to detect the presence of frazil ice in Arctic leads. Frazil ice was successfully detected with a transmissometer but could not be seen with scattering sensors. Field measurements were made in Arctic leads north of Alaska during the spring of 1992 as a part of the lead experiment (LEADEX). On two occasions, the temperature, salinity, and transmission signals show the presence of frazil. Because a transmissometer cannot distinguish ice from other types of particles, we present a concept for a dual wavelength absorption meter that would be able to distinguish between frazil ice and biological particles.
An in situ fluorometer has been designed to determine the concentration of a bacterial-sized photoautotroph. The concentration may then be used to estimate their effect upon optical properties in the upper ocean. Their fluorescence signal at 575nm enables assessment of their natural abundance fluctuations. The fluorometer is designed to be used in profiling and in moored modes. Such an instrument can provide valuable information necessary for improving our understanding of the dynamics of bacterial-sized microorganisms within the particulate matter in the upper ocean.
The design and calibration of a proposed in situ spectral absorption meter is evaluated using a laboratory prototype. The design includes a silver coated (second-surface) glass tube, a tungsten light source (stabilized by means of optical feedback), a monochromator, and a solid state detector. The device measures the absorption coefficient plus a portion of the volume scattering function. Theoretical analyses and laboratory experiments which explore the magnitude and variation of the errors due to scattering and internal reflections are described. Similar analyses are performed on the Cary 1 18 Spectrophotometer to allow cross calibration. Algorithms to yield the abscrption coefficient and the zenith-sun diffuse attenuation coefficient are presented and evaluated. Simultaneous measurement of the beam attenuation or backscattering coefficient allows use of algoriThms with much narrower error bands. The various methods of obtaining absorption and diffuse attenuation values are compared. Procedures for using reverse osmosis filtration to produce a clean water calibration standard are described. An absorption spectrum for pure water is obtained. Development of the absorption meter is proceeding along two lines: 1) a two-wavelength side-by-side LED is being fabricated to allow an in situ chlorophyll a absorption meter to be constructed, and 2) scientific projects using a shipboard or laboratory flow.-through pumping system are being planned.
We have evaluated a number of spectral attenuation meter designs based on constraints related to power consumption, spectral bandwidth, sampling time, accuracy and stability . Our fmal instrument
design employs a unique optical bridge deve1oped1r Sea Tech with ONR support, a tungsten light source and a holographic grating monochromatorThe instrument design is summarized as follows: White light from a 10-Watt tungsten lamp with a 1mm2 filament is collected by a condensing lens and then spatially filtered by a 1mm diameter pinhole which is placed at the entrance port of a monochromator. The
monochromator has a 45°, 1200 lines/mm, holographic grating 37 mm in diameter with a 91 mm focal length. The grating is rotated about its vertical axis with a sine arm driven by a stepping motor, allowing
wavelength to be selected from 400 to 800 nm. At the exit port of the monochromator we use a 1mm diameter pinhole which spectrally filters the output light, resulting in a spectral bandwidth of 9. 1 nm.
This nearly monochromatic light is then measured by a unique reference detector with a 0.5mm diameter pinhole at its center, allowing light to be transmitted through the center of the detector. The transmitted light has a bandwidth of 4.5 nm. The monochromatic light is then collimated by a 50mm focal length achromatic lens and stopped down to a beam 1 cm in diameter. This light then enters the sample chamber. After passing through the sample the light is received by a 61mm focal length achromatic lens and is focused onto a signal detector with a diameter of 1.25mm. Digitized ratios ofreference detector to signal detector voltages allow transmission to be measured with an accuracy of 0.05% and a resolution of
0.01%. By monitoring temperature we were able to temperature compensate the instrument to within 0.05% transmission from 00 C to 25° C. Based on these results it is now possible to construct a spectral attenuation meter with the required sensitivity and accuracy to measure beam attenuation in water as clean as oligotrophic ocean waters.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.