Room temperature semiconductor detectors provide high energy resolution in gamma-ray spectroscopic applications, such as radioisotope identification. Materials such as TlBr and CsPbBr3, which provide ~2% FWHM, or better, energy resolution for 662-keV photopeak from Cs-137 irradiation at room temperature and high stopping power, nevertheless exhibit mixed electronic and ionic conduction that can lead to undesirable performance degradation. While the charge pulses generated by the gamma-ray interaction and a component of the leakage current are composed of a dominant electronic signal, the ionic component contributes to the current. It affects device stability via the migration of ionic species under applied bias and polarization at the semiconductor-electrode interface, interfering with charge collection. In this work, we characterize electronic and ionic conduction in single-crystal devices of TlBr and CsPbBr3 (CLB) using ionically blocking electrodes. The ionic contribution to the leakage current is evaluated from the devices' impedance spectra. In contrast, the electronic contribution is extracted from the asymptotic limit of the devices' current-voltage-time (iVt) plots for different bias values. The response to illumination with a 375-nm LED is also measured in the iVt plots. This work presents expressions for the temperature dependence of the conductivity, referencing previous work for TlBr. It also presents the gamma-ray spectra's bias dependence and evaluates ionic conduction's role in device burn-in, conditioning, and aging processes. Comparing the impedance spectra with and without LED illumination confirms that ions represent the majority charge carrier at room temperature for TlBr and CLB, which is consistent with previous work.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Weapons of mass destruction, Homeland security, System identification, Polarization, Platinum, Ions, Electric field sensors, Detector arrays, Defect detection
We present the results from testing over 100 5x5x12 mm3 TlBr detectors configured as 3D position-sensitive virtual Frisch-grid (VFG) detectors with platinum contacts. The primary objective was to comprehensively understand factors limiting performance and long-term response variations in these detectors. The incorporation of 3D position sensitivity allowed us to monitor internal changes in charge collection efficiency after applying voltage, and to correlate them with device performance changes. The biased detectors underwent defect distribution alterations due to electric field-enhanced ion migration. Our results are based on an extensive dataset obtained from TlBr crystals produced by Radiation Monitoring Devices (RMD). These measurements were part of our development of a handheld isotope identifier based on an array of position-sensitive TlBr detectors, supported by the Department of Homeland Security, Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office. The majority of the detectors exhibited a common trend of performance improvement within 1-2 weeks, stabilization for some period of time, then a slow degradation; however, some detectors deviated from this pattern.
Thallium bromide (TlBr) is a promising material for room temperature gamma radiation detection due to its high density, high atomic number, and wide bandgap. Additionally, TlBr has a cubic crystal structure and melts congruently at a relatively low temperature. Advances in material purification, crystal growth and device processing have led to improved material quality including a significant increase in the mobility-lifetime product of electrons in TlBr. This has enabled single carrier collection devices with thicknesses of 1 cm and beyond. The arrays have been flip-chip bonded to carrier boards using a low temperature curing conductive polymer. In this paper we report on results from planar and pixelated devices. Planar TlBr devices with dimensions of 12 mm × 12 mm × 7 mm exhibit an energy resolution ranging from 3% to 5% FWHM at 662 keV when using a shaping time of 2 s. The energy resolution in planar devices improves with a reduction of the shaping timing consistent with the expected amelioration of the depth dependence. The 1-cm thick pixelated arrays, with a pitch of 1.72 mm, produce an energy resolution in the anode spectrum ranging from 1.8% to 4.4%, without applying depth corrections. This work presents spectra from a selected pixel for 133Ba and 57Co irradiation. Measurements of the room-temperature stability of the planar and pixelated detectors show that the position of the 662-keV photopeak is stable over a period of ~200 days, but the shape of the photopeak in the anode spectra exhibits small changes. These detectors show promise for applications in radio-isotope identification devices and for medical imaging.
Li-based semiconductor materials represent a promising alternative to 3-He and scintillation materials for thermal neutron detection and imaging instruments. Semiconductor crystals of LiInSe2, LiInP2Se6, and LiGaInSe2 (LiGa0.5In0.5Se2) were grown using natural and enriched lithium (6Li). The materials were characterized for electronic and optical properties including optical transmission, current-voltage (I-V) characteristic for resistivity, and bandgap. Thermal neutron detectors were fabricated and characterized for neutron and gamma-ray response. Pulse height spectra were collected from a moderated custom-designed 241AmBe neutron source and a 60Co gamma-ray source. The LiInSe2 samples exhibited a 2.8 eV cutoff in the optical spectrum and a resistivity of ~8×1011 Ω·cm. LiInSe2 devices exhibit a noise floor of <30 keV which operated at a field of 630 V/mm, for the 0.8-mm thick device. The Vertical Gradient Freeze (VGF) grown LiInP2Se6 samples exhibited a 2.2 eV cutoff in the optical spectrum and resistivity of ~4×1012 Ω·cm. The Chemical Vapor Transport (CVT) grown LiInP2Se6 devices exhibit a noise floor of <60 keV which operated at a field of 8,000 V/mm, for the 0.05- mm thick device. Furthermore, the long-term stability of LiInSe2 devices during multiple weeks under continuous bias was investigated.
TlBr is a promising material for room-temperature semiconductor gamma-ray detectors currently under development by several groups around the world. TlBr has the optimal combination of properties: high atomic number, high density, high mu-tau product, low Fano factor, and lower fabrication cost compared to other materials. The presence of crystal defects and ionic drift-diffusion enchained by the electric field affects the performance of today’s TlBr detectors. As a bias is applied across a detector, a defect distribution inside starts changing due to ion migration. The changes appear to be most pronounced in the first weeks of applying a bias to newly-manufactured crystals during the “conditioning” period. The 3-D position-sensitive detectors provide an opportunity to investigate these processes and their effects on the device performance and on corrections applied to the spectrum. Here, we present results from analyzing response changes in TlBr crystals under applied biases using position-sensitive capacitive Frisch-grid detectors.
This work has been supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office, under competitively awarded contract 70RDND18C00000024. This support does not constitute an express or implied endorsement on the part of the Government.
In reconstructive surgery, the ability to detect blood flow interruptions to grafted tissue represents a critical step in preventing postsurgical complications. We have developed and pilot tested a compact, fiber-based device that combines two complimentary modalities—diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy—to quantitatively monitor blood perfusion. We present a proof-of-concept study on an in vivo porcine model (n=8). With a controllable arterial blood flow supply, occlusion studies (n=4) were performed on surgically isolated free flaps while the device simultaneously monitored blood flow through the supplying artery as well as flap perfusion from three orientations: the distal side of the flap and two transdermal channels. Further studies featuring long-term monitoring, arterial failure simulations, and venous failure simulations were performed on flaps that had undergone an anastomosis procedure (n=4). Additionally, benchtop verification of the DCS system was performed on liquid flow phantoms. Data revealed relationships between diffuse optical measures and state of occlusion as well as the ability to detect arterial and venous compromise. The compact construction of the device, along with its noninvasive and quantitative nature, would make this technology suitable for clinical translation.
The recent reduction of dark current in Silicon Solid-state photomultipliers (SiSSPMs) makes them an attractive alternative to conventional photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) for scintillation detection applications. Nuclear Physics experiments often require large detector volumes made using scintillation materials, which require sensitive photodetectors, such as a PMTs. PMTs add to the size, fragility, and high-voltage requirements as well as distance requirements for experiments using magnetic fields. This work compares RMD’s latest detector modules, denoted as the “year 2 prototype”, of plastic scintillators that discriminate gamma and high-energy particle events from neutron events using pulse shape discrimination (PSD) coupled to a SiSSPM to the following two detector modules: a similar “year 1 prototype” and a scintillator coupled to a PMT module. It characterizes the noise floor, relative signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the timing performance, the PSD figure-of-merit (FOM) and the neutron detection efficiency of RMD’s detectors. This work also evaluates the scaling of SiSSPM detector modules to accommodate the volumes needed for many Nuclear Physics experiments. The Si SSPM detector module provides a clear advantage in Nuclear Physics experiments that require the following attributes: discrimination of neutron and gamma-ray events, operation in or near strong magnetic fields, and segmentation of the detector.
Active dosimeters for astronauts and space weather monitors are critical tools for mitigating radiation induced health issues or system failure on capital equipment. Commercial spaceflight, deep space flight, and satellites require smarter, smaller, and lower power dosimeters. There are a number of instruments with flight heritage, yet as identified in NASA’s roadmaps, these technologies do not lend themselves to a viable solution for active dosimetry for an astronaut, particularly for deep space missions. For future missions, nano- and micro-satellites will require compact instruments that will accurately assess the radiation hazard without consuming major resources on the spacecraft. RMD has developed the methods for growing an advanced scintillation material called phenylcarbazole, which provides pulse shape discrimination between protons and electrons. When used in combination with an anti-coincidence detector system, an assessment of the dose from charged ions and neutral particles can be determined. This is valuable as damage on a system (such as silicon or tissue) is dependent on the particle species. Using this crystal with readout electronics developed in partnership with COSMIAC at the University of New Mexico, the design of the Small Mixed field Autonomous Radiation Tracker (SMART) Dosimeter consists of a low-power analog to digital conversion scheme with low-power digital signal processing algorithms, which are to be implemented within a compact system on a chip, such as the Xilinx Zynq series. A review of the conceptual design is presented.
There is strong evidence that water-ice is relatively abundant within permanently shadowed lunar surface materials, particularly at the poles. Evidence for water-ice has been observed within the impact plume of the LCROSS mission and is supported by data gathered from the Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) and the Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer (LPNS). Albedo neutrons from the Moon are used for detection of hydrogen, where the epi-thermal neutron flux decreases as hydrogen content increases. The origin on the concentration of water within permanently shadowed regions is not completely understood, and the Lunar Polar Hydrogen Mapper (LunaH-Map) mission is designed to provide a high-resolution spatial distribution of the hydrogen content over the southern pole using a highly elliptical, low perilune orbit. The LunaH-Map spacecraft is a 6U cubesat consisting of the Miniature Neutron Spectrometer (Mini-NS). Mini-NS is not collimated, requiring a low altitude to achieve a higher spatial resolution compared to previous missions. To develop a compact neutron detector for epi-thermal neutrons, the Mini-NS comprises of 2-cm thick slabs of CLYC (Cs2LiYCl6), which provide a sensitivity similar to a 10-atm, 5.7-cm diameter He-3 tubes, as used in LPNS. The Mini-NS digital processing electronics can discriminate by shape and height to determine signal (albedo neutrons) from background (cosmic rays). The Mini-NS achieves a total active sensing area of 200 cm2 and is covered with a cadmium sheet to shield against thermal neutrons. The research and development on the detector modules show a robust design ready for space flight.
Optical tissue phantoms are necessary for instrument benchmarking and providing a consistent baseline for experiments in various fields of tissue spectroscopy, including diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS). To provide the most useful comparisons, a phantom would ideally mimic tissue as closely as possible, including the geometry of static and dynamic scatterers. A branching design that keeps the capillary cross section constant ensures that the same flow velocity is found throughout the phantom while allowing for single input and output fittings to feed all of the capillaries simultaneously. The direction of each capillary is randomized every few millimeters by randomly allocating 2 by 2 "twisting" squares within each layer. These squares swap the locations of four adjacent artificial capillaries either clockwise or counterclockwise. Numerical simulations were used to verify the random walk-like behavior of the capillary paths resulting from this pattern. This is a step toward replicating the randomly varying directionality of actual capillaries. This design was verified by taking DCS measurements at different flow rates of Intralipid through the phantom, demonstrating the effect of the flow rate on the characteristic decay time of the autocorrelation.
In reconstructive surgery, impeded blood flow in microvascular free flaps due to a compromise in arterial or venous patency secondary to blood clots or vessel spasms can rapidly result in flap failures. Thus, the ability to detect changes in microvascular free flaps is critical. In this paper, we report progress on in vivo pre-clinical testing of a compact, multimodal, fiber-based diffuse correlation and reflectance spectroscopy system designed to quantitatively monitor tissue perfusion in a porcine model’s surgically-grafted free flap. We also describe the device’s sensitivity to incremental blood flow changes and discuss the prospects for continuous perfusion monitoring in future clinical translational studies.
It is essential to monitor tissue perfusion during and after reconstructive surgery, as restricted blood flow can result in graft failures. Current clinical procedures are insufficient to monitor tissue perfusion, as they are intermittent and often subjective. To address this unmet clinical need, a compact, low-cost, multimodal diffuse correlation spectroscopy and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy system was developed. We verified system performance via tissue phantoms and experimental protocols for rigorous bench testing. Quantitative data analysis methods were employed and tested to enable the extraction of tissue perfusion parameters. This design verification study assures data integrity in future in vivo studies.
In reconstructive surgery, tissue perfusion/vessel patency is critical to the success of microvascular free tissue flaps. Early detection of flap failure secondary to compromise of vascular perfusion would significantly increase the chances of flap salvage. We have developed a compact, clinically-compatible monitoring system to enable automated, minimally-invasive, continuous, and quantitative assessment of flap viability/perfusion. We tested the system’s continuous monitoring capability during extended non-recovery surgery using an in vivo porcine free flap model. Initial results indicated that the system could assess flap viability/perfusion in a quantitative and continuous manner. With proven performance, the compact form constructed with cost-effective components would make this system suitable for clinical translation.
Currently the diagnosis of hemorrhagic shock is essentially clinical, relying on the expertise of nurses and doctors. One of the first measurable physiological changes that marks the onset of hemorrhagic shock is a decrease in capillary blood flow. Diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) quantifies this decrease. DCS collects and analyzes multiply scattered, coherent, near infrared light to assess relative blood flow. This work presents a preliminary study using a DCS instrument with human subjects undergoing a lower body negative pressure (LBNP) protocol. This work builds on previous successful DCS instrumentation development and we believe it represents progress toward understanding how DCS can be used in a clinical setting.
Diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) is a technique which enables powerful and robust non-invasive optical studies of tissue micro-circulation and vascular blood flow. The technique amounts to autocorrelation analysis of coherent photons after their migration through moving scatterers and subsequent collection by single-mode optical fibers. A primary cost driver of DCS instruments are the commercial hardware-based correlators, limiting the proliferation of multi-channel instruments for validation of perfusion analysis as a clinical diagnostic metric. We present the development of a low-cost scalable correlator enabled by microchip-based time-tagging, and a software-based multi-tau data analysis method. We will discuss the capabilities of the instrument as well as the implementation and validation of 2- and 8-channel systems built for live animal and pre-clinical settings.
Stable, relative localization of source and detection fibers is necessary for clinical implementation of quantitative optical perfusion monitoring methods such as diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS). A flexible and compact device design is presented as a platform for simultaneous monitoring of perfusion at a range of depths, enabled by precise location of optical fibers in a robust and secure adhesive patch. We will discuss preliminary data collected on human subjects in a lower body negative pressure model for hypovolemic shock. These data indicate that this method facilitates simple and stable simultaneous monitoring of perfusion at multiple depths and within multiple physiological compartments.
The vascularization and resulting perfusion of transferred tissues are critical to the success of grafts in buried free flap transplantations. To enable long-term clinical monitoring of grafted tissue perfusion during neovascularization and endothelialization, we are developing an implantable instrument for the continuous monitoring of perfusion using diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS), and augmented with diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS). This work discusses instrument construction, integration, and preliminary results using a porcine graft model.
Electronics used for space applications (e.g. communication satellites) are susceptible to space weather, primarily consisting of electrons and protons. As more critical equipment is used in space, a comprehensive monitoring network is needed to mitigate risks associated with radiation damage. Compact detectors suited for this requirement have been too complicated or do not provide sufficient information. As the damage from electrons (e.g. total ionizing dose effects) is significantly different compared to protons (e.g. displacement damage effects), monitors that can provide unique measurements of the dose and/or spectral information for electrons and protons separately are necessary for mission assessment to determine strategies for maintaining function. Previously, we demonstrated that the Proton-Electron Discrimination Detector (PEDD) is space-compatible and can discriminate fast electrons from protons using a diphenylanthrecene (DPA) scintillator coupled to a CMOS silicon photomultiplier (SiPM). The SiPM has a temperature dependence, and a circuit has been developed to provide a stable response as a function of temperature. The PEDD detector is scheduled to participate on the RHEME experiment to be flown on the ISS, scheduled for launch in 2016.
Avalanche photodiodes (APD) manufactured at RMD are fabricated using deep diffusion processes, resulting in a thick reach-through APD with excellent performance characteristics. These include a high quantum efficiency (<50% for visible photons) and low excess noise (F ~ 2). Due to the structure of the APD, the devices have very low junction capacitance (~0.7pF/mm2). These devices have been made as squares or hexagons on the order of 2-4” dimensionally and require <1000 V for operation. Due to the high operating bias, studies on the Geiger behavior were dismissed. The low capacitance is conducive to developing large-area devices, and the large drift region allows for charge steering toward the high breakdown field region. These results provide initial data on the performance characteristics of RMD’s APDs when operated in Geiger mode. Due to the thickness of these devices, they provide a high gain-bandwidth product for near IR single photon counting. A small area (~4 mm2) APD was biased beyond the reverse bias breakdown voltage (~1700 V at -50 C), where the device showed typical Geigermode behavior with a low dark count rate (<54 kHz at 1700 V at an excess bias of 3 V). The data indicates a uniform response over the diode region, yet due to the large dark currents, the device was only operated to 5 V in excess bias beyond the breakdown voltage. The Geiger probability at 5V excess bias was measured as 3%, which is consistent with simulations that suggest an excess bias of ~300 V is required for 100% Geiger probability.
The development of high-performance scintillation materials that emit light below 400 nm has prompted the development of improved solid-state UV photodetectors. While silicon provides a mature context for UV photodetectors, the high dark current due to its low band-gap (1.1 eV) limits the signal-to-noise performance when scaling the detector to large areas. Photodetectors fabricated in materials with a larger band-gap have the potential to surmount the performance limitations experienced by silicon. AlxGa1-xAs, is a material that provides a band gap from 1.55 eV to 2.13 eV, depending on the Al concentration. Using high Al concentration (0.7 < x < 1), AlxGa1-xAs to engineer a wider bandgap > 2eV is very desirable in terms of reducing dark noise. Due to its strong absorption of UV-light at the material surface, however, surface effects limit the quantum efficiency below 400 nm. Introducing surface layers that have a longer penetration depth for UV photons promises to boost the quantum efficiency in the UV while maintaining low dark current. This work describes the development of a photodiode fabricated in AlxGa1-xAs, x > 0.7, compared to an AlxGa1-xAs, x > 0.7 photodiode with an AlAs surface (x = 1). It presents the design of the photodiodes, simulations of their performance, the fabrication process, along with characterization data of fabricated photodiodes. We report on the surface effects of high aluminum concentration AlxGa1-xAs, x > 0.7, to provide a high quantum efficiency for photons below 400 nm, by examining the charge collection.
Solid-state photomultipliers (SSPM) are high gain photodetectors composed of Geiger photodiodes (GPD) operating above device breakdown voltage. In scintillation based radiation detection applications, SSPMs fabricated using silicon (SiPMs, MPPCs, etc) provide a compact, low cost alternative to photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), however, the high dark count rate due to its low band-gap (1.1eV) limits the signal-to-noise performance as the silicon SSPM is scaled to large areas. SSPMs fabricated in materials with a larger band-gap have the potential to surmount the performance limitations experienced by silicon. AlGaAs is a material that provides a bandgap from 1.55eV to 2.13 eV, depending on Al concentration. Using high Al concentration AlGaAs to engineer a wideband- gap (>2eV) SSPM is very desirable in terms of reducing dark noise, which promises better signal-to-noise performances when large detector areas is needed. This work describes the development of Geiger photodiodes (GPDs), the individual elements of a SSPM, fabricated in AlGaAs with 80% Al concentration. We present the design of the GPDs, the fabrication process, along with characterization data of fabricated GPD samples. To the best of our knowledge, we have demonstrated for the first time, a passively quenched Geiger photodiode in Al0.8Ga0.2As.
L. Soundara-Pandian, C. Whitney, E. Johnson, R. Vinci, J. Glodo, J. Christian, J. Gervais, Sam Vogel, E. Nagarkar, F. Robertson, M. Squillante, P. Waer
Numerous instruments have been developed for performing gamma-ray imaging and neutron imaging for research, nondestructive testing, medicine and national security. However, none are capable of imaging gamma-rays and neutrons simultaneously while also discriminating gamma-rays from the neutron. This paper will describe recent experimental results obtained using a gamma/neutron camera based on Cs2LiYCl6:Ce (CLYC) scintillation crystals, which can discriminate gamma-rays from neutrons. The ability to do this while also having good energy resolution provides a powerful capability for detecting and identifying shielded special nuclear materials for security applications. Also discussed are results obtained using a LaBr3 scintillation crystal.
Early CMOS SSPM pixel designs utilize a highly doped layer near the surface as a component for the Geiger junction, which limits the collection of charge from the surface and the UV response of the high gain solid state photodetector. To address these limitations, we are developing a new generation of CMOS SSPMs using pixel elements with a buried layer as a component of the Geiger junction in a process with smaller feature sizes. The new SSPM, an array of newly designed Geiger photodiode elements, is designed and fabricated to provide improvements in blue light response and dark noise performance. This work compares the performance of the early and new CMOS SSPM designs. Results showed ~2-4× improvement of detection efficiency in the blue/shallow UV region (350nm to 450nm), and a 10× reduction in detector dark count rate. Due to higher operating bias, the after pulse multiplier is no larger than a factor of 1.5 larger than the previous design. Inter-pixel cross-talk is similar to previous SSPM designs at comparable Geiger probabilities.
Erik Johnson, Christopher Stapels, Xiao Jie Chen, Chad Whitney, Eric Chapman, Guy Alberghini, Rich Rines, Frank Augustine, Rory Miskimen, Don Lydon, James Christian
High-energy, gamma-ray calorimetry typically employs large scintillation crystals coupled to photomultiplier tubes.
These calorimeters are segmented to the limits associated with the costs of the crystals, photomultiplier tubes, and
support electronics. A cost-effective means for construction of a calorimeter system is to use solid-state photomultipliers
(SSPM) with front-end electronics, which is at least half the cost, but the SSPM must provide the necessary energy
resolution defined by the physics goals. One experiment with plans to exploit this advantage is an upgrade to the
PRIMEX experiment at Jefferson Laboratories. We have developed a large-area SSPM (1 cm × 1 cm) for readout of
large scintillation crystals. As PbWO4 has excellent properties (small Molière radius and radiation hard) for high-energy
gamma-rays (>1 GeV) but low light yields (~150 photons/MeV at 0 °C), evaluation of the SSPM and support readout
electronics with LaBr3 provides a measure of the device performance. Using the known detection efficiency and dark
current of the SSPM, an excess noise factor associated with after pulsing and cross talk is determined. The contribution
to the energy resolution from the detector module is calculated as <1% for gamma rays greater than ~2.5 GeV (0.7% at
4.5 GeV).
Exploration in nuclear physics may require extreme conditions, such as temperatures down to a few Kelvin, high
magnetic fields of several Tesla, or the small physical dimensions of a few centimeters. As a standard technique for
radiation detection using scintillation materials, it is desirable to develop photodetectors that can operate under these
harsh conditions. Though photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) have been used for most applications for readout of scintillation
materials, they are bulky, highly susceptible to magnetic fields, and present a large heat load in cryogenic environments.
Avalanche photodiodes are a reasonable alternative to PMTs in that they are extremely compact and less susceptible to
magnetic fields. Avalanche photodiodes have been developed in a commercial CMOS process for operation at
temperatures below 100 Kelvin. Here we present the overall operation of the photodiodes at 5 Kelvin. The diodes show a
quantum efficiency of at least 30% at 532 nm at 5 Kelvin. At about 30 Kelvin, the diodes exhibit an internal resistive
term, which generates a second breakdown point. The prototype diode shows a proportional response to the intensity of
light pulses down to 150 detected photons with a hole to electron ionization ratio, k, of 2.3x10-13 at 5 Kelvin. The
properties of the photodiodes and the readout electronics will be discussed for general photon detection below 100 K.
Detection of single photons is crucial for a number of applications. Geiger photodiodes (GPD) provide large gains with
an insignificant amount of multiplication noise exclusively from the diode. When the GPD is operated above the reverse
bias breakdown voltage, the diode can avalanche due to charged pairs generated from random noise (typically thermal)
or incident photons. The GPD is a binary device, as only one photon is needed to trigger an avalanche, regardless of the
number of incident photons. A solid-state photomultiplier (SSPM) is an array of GPDs, and the output of the SSPM is
proportional to the incident light intensity, providing a replacement for photomultiplier tubes.
We have developed CMOS SSPMs using a commercial fabrication process for a myriad of applications. We present
results on the operation of these devices for low intensity light pulses. The data analysis provides a measured of the
junction capacitance (~150 fF), which affects the rise time (~2 ns), the fall time (~32 ns), and gain (>106). Multipliers
for the cross talk and after pulsing are given, and a consistent picture within the theory of operation of the expected dark
current and photodetection efficiency is demonstrate. Enhancement of the detection efficiency with respect to the
quantum efficiency at unity gain for shallow UV photons is measured, indicating an effect due to fringe fields within the
diode structure. The signal and noise terms have been deconvolved from each other, providing the fundamental model
for characterizing the behavior at low-light intensities.
For detecting neutrons, 3-He tubes provide sensitivity and a unique capability for detecting and discriminating
neutron signals from background gamma-ray signals. A solid-state scintillation-based detector provides an alternative to
3-He for neutron detection. A real-time, portable, and low cost thermal neutron detector has been constructed from a
6Li-enriched Cs2LiYCl6:Ce (CLYC) scintillator crystal coupled with a CMOS solid-state photomultiplier (SSPM).
These components are fully integrated with a miniaturized multi-channel analyzer (MCA) unit for calculation and
readout of the counts and count rates.
CLYC crystals and several other elpasolites including Cs2LiLaCl6:Ce (CLLC) and Cs2LiLaBr6:Ce (CLLB) have
been considered for their unique properties in detecting neutrons and discriminating gamma ray events along with
providing excellent energy resolution comparable to NaI(Tl) scintillators. CLYC's slower rise and decay time for
neutrons (70ns and 900ns respectively) relative to a faster rise and decay time for gamma ray events (6ns and 55ns
respectively) allows for pulse shape discrimination in mixed radiation fields.
Light emissions from CLYC crystals are detected using an array of avalanche photodiodes referred to as solid-state
photomultipliers. SSPMs are binary photon counting devices where the number of pixels activated is directly
proportional to the light output of the CLYC scintillator which is proportional to the energy deposited from the radiation
field. SSPMs can be fabricated using standard CMOS processes and inherently contain the low noise performance
associated with ordinary photomultiplier tubes (PMT) while providing a light and compact solution for portable neutron
detectors.
Solid-state photomultipliers (SSPM) are photodetectors composed of avalanche photodiode pixel arrays operating in
Geiger mode (biased above diode breakdown voltage). They are built using CMOS technology and can be used in a
variety of applications in high energy and nuclear physics, medical imaging and homeland security related areas. The
high gain and low cost associated with the SSPM makes it an attractive alternative to existing photodetectors such as the
photomultiplier tube (PMT). The capability of integrating CMOS on-chip readout circuitry on the same substrate as the
SSPM also provides a compact and low-power-consumption solution to photodetector applications with stringent area
and power requirements. The optical performance of the SSPM, specifically the detection and quantum efficiencies, can
depend on the geometry and the doping profile associated with each photodiode pixel. The noise associated with the
SSPM not only includes dark noise from each pixel, but also consists of excess noise terms due to after pulsing and
inter-pixel cross talk. The magnitude of the excess noise terms can depend on biasing conditions, temperature, as well as
pixel and inter-pixel dimensions. We present the optical and noise performance of SSPMs fabricated in a conventional
CMOS process, and demonstrate the dependence of the SSPM performance on pixel/inter-pixel geometry, doping
profile, temperature, as well as bias conditions. The continuing development of CMOS SSPM technology demonstrated
here shows that low cost and high performance solid state photodetectors are viable solutions for many existing and
future optical detection applications.
Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode detectors are produced using standard CMOS fabrication methods. We
have produced integrated circuits that include the Geiger-mode photodetector and digital signal processing circuits. Our
current design includes sixteen photon counting detector elements, with bias control, active quenching circuits, and
integrated counters at each pixel. The detectors are used to measure chemiluminescence from horseradish peroxidase
conjugated antibodies in sub-microliter samples using an optical waveguide. The detector array has been coupled with an
external field programmable gate array (FPGA) to perform multi-channel, all digital, time resolved fluorescence
measurements of quantum dot nanoparticles and the pH dependence of the fluorescence lifetime of fluorescein dye.
A dosimeter-on-a-chip (DoseChip) comprised of a tissue-equivalent scintillator coupled to a solid-state photomultiplier
(SSPM) built using CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) technology represents an ideal technology for a
space-worthy, real-time solar-particle monitor for astronauts. It provides a tissue-equivalent response to the relevant
energies and types of radiation for Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) and interplanetary space flight to the moon or Mars. The
DoseChip will complement the existing Crew Passive Dosimeters by providing real-time dosimetry and as an alarming
monitor for solar particle events (SPEs).[1]
A prototype of the DoseChip, comprised of a 3 x 3 x 3 mm3 cube of BC-430 plastic scintillator coupled to a 2000-pixel
SSPM, has successfully demonstrated response to protons at the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory (NSRL) at
Brookhaven National Laboratory and at the HIMAC facility in Japan. The dynamic range of the dose has been verified
over four orders of magnitude for particles with LET ranging from 0.2 keV/μm to 200 keV/μm, which includes 1-GeV
protons to 420-MeV/n Fe nuclei.
To exploit the benefits of the CMOS SSPM, we have developed our first autonomous prototype using the DoseChip. An
analog circuit is used to process the signals from the SSPM, and an on-board microprocessor is used to digitize and store
the pulse height information. Power is distributed over the device from a single dual voltage supply through various
regulators and boost converters to appropriate supply voltages to each of the components.
The detection of illicit nuclear sources and SNM requires an ubiquitous network of sensors. While 3He proportional
counters are excellent neutron detectors, there is an insufficient global supply of 3He to create the required number of
detectors. Alternatives to 3He must be efficient, insensitive to gamma radiation, easily manufactured, rugged, and
inexpensive to enable the procurement of a large numbers of sensors. The use of a high sensitivity solid-state optical
detector coupled to scintillation materials, loaded with a neutron absorber such as 6Li or 10B, can fulfill these design
constraints. In this work, we compare the properties of neutron-sensitive scintillation materials utilizing Monte Carlo
simulations and experiments. Cs2LiLaBr6:Ce is compared to commercially available boron-loaded plastic scintillators
and 3He tubes. The scintillators are compared for neutron detection efficiency, limitations on size, gamma-rejection
ratio, neutron detection limits, manufacturing cost, and availability for mass-production.
KEYWORDS: Signal processing, Sensors, Signal detection, Electronics, Capacitance, Silicon, Diodes, Solid state photomultipliers, Photodiodes, Photomultipliers
CMOS Geiger avalanche photodiodes (GPD), and parallel arrays of GPDs - a solid-state photomultiplier - are high-gain,
high-sensitivity, versatile light sensors. Applications include readout of scintillation materials for nuclear detection and
gamma ray imaging, scanning of biological fluorescence including flow cytometry, and as LIDAR sensors.
Manufacturing such devices in CMOS provides the possibility of direct integration of signal processing and readout
electronics monolithically with the sensor. Recently, RMD has fabricated SSPM arrays with pixel-level conditioning.
For example, comparators at the pixel level are used, as described in this work, to condition the signal. These active
pixel elements provide active quenching of the Geiger avalanche, increase dynamic range, and can suppress afterpulsing
by the application of a long gate. A conditioned signal can also isolate the output from the temperature fluctuations that
are often associated with silicon devices. We examine the performance of these integrated circuits at the pixel level and
at the level of the whole sensor. Preliminary results show that sources of electronic noise are drastically reduced. The
resulting isolation of the processed signals from bias and temperature fluctuations is presented.
CMOS solid-state photomultipliers (CMOS-SSPM) are new, potentially very inexpensive, photodetectors that have
the promise of supplanting photomultiplier tubes and standard photodiodes for many nuclear radiation detection
measurements using scintillator crystals. The compact size and very high gain make SSPMs attractive for use in
applications where photomultiplier tubes cannot be used and standard photodiodes have insufficient sensitivity. In this
effort, the use of SSPMs was investigated for the detection of neutrons with the goal of designing a detector for portable
systems that has the capability of discriminating neutrons from gamma rays.
The neutron scintillation signatures were measured using boron-loaded plastic scintillators. Our detector concept
design incorporates a dual-scintillator design with both a neutrons sensitive organic scintillator (a boron-loaded gel) and
a gamma ray sensitive inorganic scintillator (LYSO). Using this design, the gamma ray signal is suppressed and the
neutron events are clearly resolved. The design was modeled to optimize the detection efficiency for both thermal and
energetic neutrons. In addition, the detection of thermal neutrons in the presence of gamma rays was examined using the
SSPM coupled to Cs2LiYCl6:Ce scintillator (CLYC).
Geiger-mode photodiodes (GPD) act as binary photon detectors that convert analog light intensity into digital pulses.
Fabrication of arrays of GPD in a CMOS environment simplifies the integration of signal-processing electronics to
enhance the performance and provide a low-cost detector-on-a-chip platform. Such an instrument facilitates imaging
applications with extremely low light and confined volumes. High sensitivity reading of small samples enables twodimensional
imaging of DNA arrays and for tracking single molecules, and observing their dynamic behavior. In this
work, we describe the performance of a prototype imaging detector of GPD pixels, with integrated active quenching for
use in imaging of 2D objects using fluorescent labels. We demonstrate the integration of on-chip memory and a parallel
readout interface for an array of CMOS GPD pixels as progress toward an all-digital detector on a chip. We also
describe advances in pixel-level signal processing and solid-state photomultiplier developments.
Illicit nuclear materials represent a threat for the safety of the American citizens, and the detection and interdiction of a
nuclear weapon is a national problem that has not been yet solved. Alleviating this threat represents an enormous
challenge to current detection methods that have to be substantially improved to identify and discriminate threatening
from benign incidents. Rugged, low-power and less-expensive radiation detectors and imagers are needed for large-scale
wireless deployment.
Detecting the gamma rays emitted by nuclear and fissionable materials, particularly special nuclear materials (SNM), is
the most convenient way to identify and locate them. While there are detectors that have the necessary sensitivity, none
are suitable to meet the present need, primarily because of the high occurrence of false alarms.
The exploitation of neutron signatures represents a promising solution to detecting illicit nuclear materials. This work
presents the development of several detector configurations such as a mobile active interrogation system based on a
compact RF-Plasma neutron generator developed at LBNL and a fast neutron telescope that uses plastic scintillating-fibers
developed at the University of New Hampshire. A human-portable improved Solid-State Neutron Detector
(SSND) intended to replace pressurized 3He-tubes will be also presented. The SSND uses an ultra-compact CMOS-SSPM
(Solid-State Photomultiplier) detector, developed at Radiation Monitoring devices Inc., coupled to a neutron
sensitive scintillator. The detector is very fast and can provide time and spectroscopy information over a wide energy
range including fast neutrons.
We report the development of a photon-counting solid-state photomultiplier that consists of an array of Geiger mode CMOS avalanche photodiodes (APDs). The detector is based on the design described by Buzhan et. al.1 in which the individual outputs of an array of Geiger APDs are coupled together to drive a common output signal. The total output signal is a sum of the Geiger outputs of each individual pixel in the array. For a large array, the sum of the signals from the discrete pixels producess an analog representation of the flux on the detector. In this report we describe our most recent measurements of the spectral response and noise characteristics of the individual detector elements. We present results for a 14 element array of Geiger mode pixels that is used as a solid state photomultiplier (SSPM). We use this SSPM to create a prototype radiation detector that can identify the source based on the energy of the emitted radiation.
We report on the development and application of a flow cytometer using a 16-channel avalanche photodiode (APD) linear detector array. The array is configured with a dispersive grating to simultaneously record emission over a broad wavelength range using the 16 APD channels of the linear APD array. The APD detector elements have a peak quantum efficiency of 80% near 900 nm and have at least 40% quantum efficiency over the 400-nm to 1000-nm wavelength range. The extended red sensitivity of the detector array facilitates the use of lower energy excitation sources and near IR emitting dyes which reduces the impact of autofluorescence in signal starved measurements. The wide wavelength sensitivity of the APD array permits the use of multiple excitation sources and many different fluorescent labels to maximize the number of independent parameters in a given experiment. We show the sensitivity and linearity measurements for a single APD detector. Initial results for the flow cytometer with the 16-element APD array and the 16-channel readout ASIC (application specific integrated circuit) are presented.
Geiger mode Avalanche Photodiodes fabricated using complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) fabrication technology combine high sensitivity detectors with pixel-level auxiliary circuitry. Radiation Monitoring Devices has successfully implemented CMOS manufacturing techniques to develop prototype detectors with active diameters ranging from 5 to 60 microns and measured detection efficiencies of up to 60%. CMOS active quenching circuits are included in the pixel layout. The actively quenched pixels have a quenching time less than 30 ns and a maximum count rate greater than 10 MHz. The actively quenched Geiger mode avalanche photodiode (GPD) has linear response at room temperature over six orders of magnitude. When operating in Geiger mode, these GPDs act as single photon-counting detectors that produce a digital output pulse for each photon with no associated read noise. Thermoelectrically cooled detectors have less than 1 Hz dark counts. The detection efficiency, dark count rate, and after-pulsing of two different pixel designs are measured and demonstrate the differences in the device operation. Additional applications for these devices include nuclear imaging and replacement of photomultiplier tubes in dosimeters.
A method for constructing an x-ray telescope with exceedingly hgh spatial resolution is to use a pair of coaxial, Fresnel zone plates aligned with an imaging x-ray detector. This combination allows the high sensitivity imaging of x-ray and gamma-ray sources ranging in energy from 1 keV to several hundred keV over a field of view of several degrees with spatial resolution of a fraction of an arc minute. We have implemented a version of such a telescope using several relatively new technologies. These include specialized techniques for constructing Fresnel zone plates from thin sheets of tungsten, a 64-element, avalanche photodiode (APD) array coupled to a matching, segmented, CsI(T1) scintillator, a new ASIC which provides 16-channels of low noise amplification, and image processing software that provides the user not only with localized intensity information, but also with localized spectral information.
Avalanche photodiode (APD) arrays fabricated by using complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) fabrication technology offer the possibility of combining these high sensitivity detectors with cost effective, on-board, complementary circuitry. Using CMOS techniques, Radiation Monitoring Devices has developed prototype pixels with active diameters ranging from 5 to 60 microns and with measured quantum efficiencies of up to 65%. The prototype CMOS APD pixel designs support both proportional and Geiger modes of photo-detection. When operating in Geiger mode, these APD’s act as single-optical-photon-counting detectors that can be used for time-resolved measurements under signal-starved conditions. We have also designed and fabricated CMOS chips that contain not only the APD pixels, but also associated circuitry for both actively and passively quenching the self-propagating Geiger avalanche. This report presents the noise and timing performance for the prototype CMOS APD pixels in both the proportional and Geiger modes of operation. It compares the quantum efficiency and dark-count rate of different pixel designs as a function of the applied bias and presents a discussion of the maximum count rates that is obtained with each of the two types of quenching circuits for operating the pixel in Geiger mode. Preliminary data on the application of the APD pixels to laser ranging and fluorescent lifetime measurement is also presented.
The Avalanche Photodiode (APD) is a unique device that combines the advantages of solid state photodetectors with those of high gain devices such as photomultiplier tubes (PMTs). APDs have internal gain that provides a high signal-to-noise ratio. APDs have high quantum efficiency, are fast, compact, and rugged. These properties make them suitable detectors for important applications such as LADAR, detection and identification toxic chemicals and bio-warfare agents, LIDAR fluorescence detection, stand-off laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), and nuclear detectors and imagers.
Recently there have been significant technical breakthroughs in fabricating very large APDs, APD arrays, and position sensitive APD arrays (PSAPD). Signal gain of over 10,000 has been achieved, single element APDs have been fabricated with active area greater than 40 cm2, monolithic pixelated arrays with up to 28 x 28 elements have been fabricated, and position sensitive APDs have been developed and tested. Additionally, significant progress has been made in improving the fabrication process to provide better uniformity and high yield, permitting cost effective manufacturing of APDs for reduced cost.
Development of monolithic arrays of multiplexed, high-gain avalanche photodiodes suitable for use in a spectroscopic radiation-imaging device is underway at RMD. To dramatically reduce the electronics required to support a large array of discrete pixels, we have utilized a unique property of avalanche photodiodes and the method in which they are produced to develop a relatively simple readout scheme using row-column addressing. By adding a step to the avalanche photodiode creation, it is possible to place two, separate diode contacts onto the back of each photodiode in the array. These isolation diodes allow the readout of an entire row or column of photodiodes through a common readout line. A data-decoding matrix uniquely determines the position in the array while simultaneously supporting the goal of reducing the number of signal readout lines and support electronics. This approach reduces the number of pre-amplifiers, pulse-shaping circuits, and sample-and-hold stages from n2 to 2n (n pixels on a side) per array. Recent research has been carried out with 14 × 14 pixel, planar-processed avalanche photodiode array having pixels 2.00 mm on a side with 2.25-mm pitch. These arrays will be paneled to form the photodetector of a radiation imager of approximately 100-cm2 photosensitive area. To reduce the contribution of noise from each pixel to the common readout lines, research is being carried out to develop a discriminator with an adjustable threshold for each avalanche photodiode readout connection. Initial performance results from multiplexed arrays, a discussion of the active discrimination contacts, and the current status of the imager research project are given.
The technique of femtosecond coherence spectroscopy is applied to the heme proteins myoglobin (Mb) and hemoglobin (Hb). Studies of field driven coherences lead to power spectra that are in good agreement with resonance Raman scattering experiments. Studies of the NO bound derivatives of Mb and Hb reveal rapid photolysis and non-radiative relaxation to the ground electronic state. The ensuing nuclear response is oscillatory and displays strong coupling of the NO photolysis reaction to the iron-histidine vibration and to the heme doming mode, which we locate at approximately 40 cm-1. The doming mode was previously assigned to a mode at approximately 80 cm-1, which we now believe is actually the first overtone of the doming motion. Other modes at approximately 120 cm-1 and 160 cm-1 are also exposed by the new data, suggesting that a progression of doming harmonics is excited to the strong coupling of this mode to the photolysis reaction.
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