This paper proposes a review of the different opportunities described in literature for quantitative assessment of natural and reconstructed teeth using optical methods. These experimental method are particularly interesting for understanding the behavior of the natural tooth, but even more so for the CAD/CAM (Computerized aided design and computerized aided manufacturing) bonded ceramics reconstructions. Indeed CAD/CAM ceramics are increasingly used as therapeutic options. However, little is known about their mechanical behavior under stress, as the response of the prepared tooth supporting it. In the past years, optical approaches were proposed to get whole field and quantitative measurement of their mechanical properties. This paper discusses the main methods described in literature, as photo elasticity, digital Moiré interferometry, speckle interferometry and digital color holography.
Computerized Aided Design (CAD) and Computerized Aided Manufacturing (CAM) ceramic occlusal veneers are increasingly used as therapeutic options. However, little is known about their mechanical behavior under stress, as the response of the prepared tooth that supports it. The aim of this article is to use for the first time 3D color holography to evaluate the behavior of a molar occlusal veneer under stress and the response of the prepared tooth. The occlusal surface of a lower molar is prepared to receive a specific monolithic ceramic reconstruction manufactured with a chairside CAD/CAM system. Longitudinally cut samples are used to get a planar object observation and to “look inside” the tooth. A digital holographic set-up permits to obtain the contact-less and one-shot measurement of the three-dimensional displacement field at the surface of the tooth sample; stain fields are evaluated with low noise-sensitive computation. The results show an excellent behavior of the restored tooth without areas of excessive stress concentrations, but also a significant involvement of the dentin enamel junction. So, we demonstrate that the ceramic occlusal veneer seems to behave in accordance with the biomechanical concepts ensuring the longevity of the reconstituted tooth. It follows that we demonstrate that 3D holography is a highly recommended method for studying dental biomechanics.
This paper presents a reconstruction algorithm based on an intermediate digital hologram which leads to the reconstruction of the image of the object with a controlled sampling pitch and number of pixels. The final image is obtained by calculating the diffraction from the intermediate hologram plane to the image plane using the convolution approach. Experimental results confirm the suitability of the proposed method. The calculation time is slightly better than the other similar approaches. Application in digital color holographic imaging shows that the proposed algorithm provides full color images of colored objects.
This work describes the image formation and properties of holographic three-dimensional (3-D) display based on spatial light modulators (SLMs) combined with optical imaging systems. Existing pixelated SLMs with periodic mesh structures affect the holographic reconstruction and display properties. According to a holographic 3-D display architecture based on SLM in paraxial optical systems, this study applied the ray matrix optics and scalar diffraction theory to regard the light wave emitting from the holographic plane to the image plane as an optical system composed of four matrix elements. The image quality and depth of field (DOF) of the holographic 3-D display system are investigated, and the relationship between the impulse response and the matrix elements of the holographic imaging system is derived. In addition, the imaging properties and DOF are explored and verified through optical experimentation.
The method of digital holography wavefront reconstruction with adjustable magnification is introduced. Since there is
strong zero-order diffraction interference on the reconstruction plane, three different methods are proposed to eliminate
zero-order diffraction interference, and compared through experiment. The experimental results demonstrated that the
mean subtracted from a hologram is an effective method.
The sampling conditions of calculating the angular spectrum diffraction transform using FFT are deduced in the paper.
Combining the Gerchberg-Saxton (GS) algorithm with the angular spectrum theory of diffraction, the design method of
binary optical element to realize beam transformation is advanced. And a design example of the diffraction element in
marking pattern is also given.
KEYWORDS: 3D image reconstruction, Holograms, Digital holography, Charge-coupled devices, Image quality, Digital imaging, Holography, Digital recording, Spherical lenses, Reconstruction algorithms
In this paper a method of numerical recording and reconstruction a large size color holographic image by using of
angular spectrums diffraction equation is presented. At first, the digital hologram of large size color object which is
illuminated with differently wavelengths (red, green, blue) is recorded by a black-white CCD. Then each monochromatic
holographic image is reconstructed with the same magnification, and the corresponding digital color holographic image
is acquired by accurately synthesizing the reconstructed monochromatic images. In order to record the hologram of large
size object, a negative lens is used; and wave-front of reduced image of object is recorded by CCD. At the same time, a
good reconstruction image is achieved by eliminating zero-order image with Liquid crystal spatial light modulator
(LC-SLM). The experimental results demonstrated that the method presented in this paper can preserve the high
frequency information of the object very well, thus can significantly improve reconstruction image quality.
KEYWORDS: Digital holography, Holograms, Charge-coupled devices, Diffraction, Holography, Digital recording, 3D image reconstruction, Digital imaging, Near field diffraction, Fourier transforms
A optical system using concave lens, which is used to image a big object preliminarily, is presented. This is an applicable
method in digital holography detection. Digital holography reconstruction is studied according to inverse calculation of
Collins' formula and setup optimization for digital hologram recording system is presented. Theoretical study implies
that using concave lens can make the recording system more compact. Further more, in order to make the system be
suitable for multi-wavelength illumination, the focal length of lens is modified according to wavelength of irradiation,
and the setup optimization is performed so as to record hologram successfully with multi-wavelength illumination. To
valid this method, several holograms are recorded under dual-wavelength illumination with the setup and object fields
are reconstructed through focus modification.
This letter presents a method for real-time three-color digital holographic interferometry based on Foveon CCD. The
control mode of CCD is optimized and color aliasing is limited consumedly. The influence on color hologram becomes
very little. On the whole, color aliasing is eliminated especially in the phase difference detecting. Moreover, the optical
setup is considerably simplified, since the reference beams are combined into a unique beam. Experimental results
confirm the suitability of the proposed method.
An approximate calculation method of material's temperature field is presented for pulse laser heat action when the
object irradiated by laser beam is regarded as homogeneous medium with constant thermophysical properties. And the
feasibility of this method is also proved by experiment. In order to let our investigation results be adapted for laser beam
with arbitrary intensity distribution, the approximate expressions of arbitrary distribution of laser beam and the method
of determining the thermophysical parameters of the material through the experiments are discussed.
We present a simple set-up for digital color holography in which the reference beam has a unique way and the recording
uses a stacked photodiode sensor. A dedicated algorithm allows the color object to be reconstructed along each channel.
Experimental results confirm the proposed approach.
New double FFT convolution algorithms based on the use of spatial spectrum scanning or numerical spherical
reconstruction wave allow the full complex amplitude of large objects to be reconstructed. Experimental results in color
holography and contact less metrology validate the proposed methods.
Two digital optical methods to measure micro-deformation field are investigated. One is digital shearography measurement, the other is reflecting digital holography interferometry. Corresponding experiments are done based on both methods mentioned above, and the stripe pattens are gained by using digital image processing. A simple and quick method to interpret stripe pattens is presented and corresponding results are also obtained.
A digital real-time holographic measurement system is designed based on the principles of double-exposed digital holography in this paper. In order to adapt this system to the variation of specimen size, a concave lens is placed in the classic 4f system, and then the object light path of this system, which transverse magnification can be adjusted by regulating the positions of lens, is equivalent to the 4f system. The object spectrum arriving at charge-coupled device camera (CCD) can be obtained by the Fourier transformation, and the complex amplitude of object wave can be obtained by the Fourier inversion. The phase variation corresponding to the initial object wave when the specimen is deformed can be gained by computer, and furthermore, phase variation corresponding to any of the two different displacement status can also be obtained. That is to say, with the help of this system, we can get much more information than that obtained by classic holography. The system has been used to measure the out-of-plane displacement of PMM specimen containing cracks. The holograms quality obtained by this system is close to that obtained by classic holography. The holograms obtained by digital real-time holography are also compared well with those obtained by classic holography. The digital real-time holography described in this paper can also be adapted for the variation of projection size of the specimen, therefore this system can be used to measure the specimens those projection size are larger than that of area-array of CCD.
This paper discussed the measurement error of digital holographic 3D surface shape caused by imprecise measurement of the incident angle and the tilt angle of object light illumination in theory. The result showed that the error caused by the tilt angle is much greater than the incident angle. Then a method to accurately calculate the object light's tilt angle by detecting the interference field of reference plane is proposed based on the above discussion. Finally, the feasibility of the method is proved through a 3D surface shape detection experiment.
KEYWORDS: Digital holography, Holograms, Diffraction, Charge-coupled devices, 3D image reconstruction, Holography, Wavefront reconstruction, Digital imaging, Digital recording, Optical simulations
Based on the traditional basic theory for the making of the phase hologram, the digital phase hologram is studied in this
paper. The experimental results demonstrated that, in the forming of digital phase type hologram, there exists a
constituent parameter that corresponds to the exposure time of the traditional phase type recorded by holographic plate.
By choosing the proper constituent parameter, the object wavefield can also be reconstructed from the digital phase
hologram. In this paper, the forming of the digital phase hologram and how to choose the constituent parameter are
presented, finally, the comparison between the digital amplitude holograpy and digital phase holography in theory
simulation under the same condition and the experiment verification are given out.
Phase-shifting is one of key technologies in the digital holography or interferometry. Exact and stable phase shifts play
an important role in the experimental results. Computer-generated holograph phase-shifting unit based on LC-SLM can
produce phase shift with repeatable and high stability. In the system, it is very crucial to encode the computer-generated
holograph on LC-SLM. This paper investigates phase-shifting precision and stability as well as diffraction efficiency by
using various encoding methods in theory and experiment. The work in the paper establishes foundation that
computer-generated holograph phase-shifting unit based on LC-SLM can be applied in the digital holography and
interferometry system.
Based on the theory of object wave reconstruction by means of inverse calculation of Collins' formula, the equations of object wave reconstruction are put forward in digital holographic research. An example of computer simulation of object wave reconstruction is presented.
On an experimental apparatus employed for laser heat treatment, a specific optical device (image-overlapping waveguide cavity with a square aperture) is mounted in order to homogenize the energy distribution of a high-power CO2 laser beam which is used as a heating source. After the laser beam is transformed by this device, a square homogeneous beam spot with trim edges is got on the surface of heated materials. Based on Fourier optics, a mathematical model has been developed to calculate the power density distribution of the beam spot. Simulation has been done through programming on a computer in this model. By comparing theoretical simulation with experimental thermal spot, this model is validated. Conclusions of this work also demonstrate that the energy distribution of converted beam spot in the image plan, obtained through segmentation-recombination, shows local drastic variations due to interference. To suppress the interference fringes existed in converted beam spot and improve its local homogenization, a further study of the device is made. The optical parameters of the device which effect the final power distribution of converted beam spot are analyzed. An optimized scheme of the device is given through modifying its parameters. According to the scheme, the local homogenization of converted beam spot is improved by one order of magnitude.
Based on the solution of energy equation about thermal conduction, a semi-analytical method to calculate the temperature field in a thin metallic plate irradiated by CO2 laser beam was presented in previous study. By means of this method, the simulation of temperature field can be completed on a personal computer with less calculation burden. In this paper, this method is studied further. The problem existed in the current model is pointed out. Via simplifying mathematical formulas rationally, an improved practical model to simulate the temperature distribution is given. According to the model, a set of simulation software is developed to calculate temperature distribution under laser heating opaque materials. The simulation with respect to a thin stainless steel sample plate heated by CO2 laser beam is carried out. The comparison of theoretical simulation and experimental data is made. The calculation error is less than 10%.
To analyze mode fields in a seven-folded stable resonator with circular diaphragms, we introduce a new method combining the traditional self-reproducing theory with diffraction theory in the form of the ray matrix. Since the iterative method presented by Fox and Li is complex for the seven-folded resonator with diaphragms, in this paper, by means of Collins's formula in polar coordinates, diffraction integral equations expressed by ray matrices are converted to finite-sum matrix equations along diffraction interfaces. Moreover, diaphragms and reflective areas in the seven-folded resonator are simplified to apertures given by the pupil function. Finally, using the self-reproducing principle, we describe mode fields and their losses in the folded resonator as eigenvectors and eigenvalues of a transfer matrix. By calculating the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the transfer matrix, we obtain eigenmode field distributions and their losses in the resonator. It is shown from simulation results that the seven-folded resonator with circular diaphragms can easily yield the fundamental mode, so it can output laser beams of good quality.
One-time phase shifting method, by which a high-quality correlation fringe image has been obtained, is presented in this paper. By comparison with the image quality obtained in traditional ways through simulation on a computer, there is no essential difference between images obtained by this method and twice or three times π/2 phase shifting methods. Subsequently, the image obtained from experiments of digital shearography is processed. Experiment result proves that the method is feasible.
The internal boundary conditions analytical model of laser heat treatment temperature field calculation results, which is validated by experiment, is used to reconstruct three dimensional temperature field distributions by DELPHI. The different lays temperature field of laser treatment is reality reappeared; it is useful to the research of laser heat treatment.
The experiment of laser heat treatment of workpieces with a sharp board milled to be 90°, 55°, 45° and 35° has been finished to investigate the influences of the sharp board on the temperature field and the heat-affected zone. The spot of laser has been sampled using the thermal paper in two planes of different height h1 and h2, and the power distribution of laser has been simulated numerically. A finite element model of numerical calculation is developed to simulate the transient three-dimensional temperature field, and the shade plot and isotherm can be output in any longitudinal and transverse sections and then the hardened zones are determined. The several cross sections of treated workpieces are chosen to make the metallographical analysis and the comparisons with the numerical results. It has proved that the numerical results are in a good agreement with the experimental data and the sharp boards have a great influence on the temperature and the heat-affected zone when laser approaches to the sharp board of workpiece.
Repositing a single exposure hologram to its original place precisely and real-time measuring the phase distribution of the deformed object wave are the foundation of real-time holographic interferometry. In general, phase distribution of the under testing object wave must be determined by measuring the corresponding intensity distribution of several phase shift interferograms. An digital method is introduced in this paper, it greatly simplify the process of determination for the phase distribution of the under testing object wave by using only one interferogram and reduce the precise requirement of the real-time hologram reposition. Some experimental examples are also given in the paper.
In a previous paper we have described that some dark shadow areas appeared among the interference fringes in real-time
holographic interferometry and we pointed that the appearing of these dark shadow regions are the phenomena of caustic in
Geometry Optics. These dark shadow region bears certain relation with the interference fringes. The quantitative relation
between caustics and real-time holographic interferometry in the experiments of mode I crack and mode III crack were
studied in detail. The quantitative relation introduced theoretically in this paper and compare with mode II crack. Based on
these relations, holographic method and caustic method can be combined together in interferometry and it can be used as a
powerful tool for scientific study and might lead to a wide application in many fields.
Rapid calculation methods for both transient temperature fields and steady-state temperature fields of laser heat treatments and their theoretic relation are discussed, with application examples of simulating calculation. The applicable conditions of rapid calculation methods for temperature fields are also investigated. The obtained results show that steady-state temperature fields are the ultimate solution of transient temperature fields, in which the time of laser interaction with matter is infinite, and the rapid calculation of transient temperature fields can describe heat interaction of a real laser much better. A quantitative criterion of the rapid calculation methods is given in the application research.
To determine the phase distribution of the under testing object wave from the interferogram is the foundation of holographic interferometry. A digital image processing method for deleting the background noise and obtaining the phase distribution precisely is proposed by the authors and the example is also presented in this paper.
In a series of the experiments of real-time holographic interferometry, some dark shadow areas appear among the interference fringes. The appearing of the dark shadow area plays a very important role in the fracture process. We find that the appearing of these dark shadow regions are the phenomena of caustic in Fracture Mechanics. The shadow region is so called shadow spot in Fracture Mechanics and the factor of stress intensity can be calculated by measuring the size of the correosponding length of the shadow spot and the strain field can be calculated by traditional holographic method. Therefore, holographic method and caustic method can be combined together in holographic interferometry and it will lead to a wide application in Experimental Mechanics.
The principle of holographic CT measurement is introduced briefly, and the possibility of measuring 3D variation of the refractive index from the intensity distribution of a real-time holographic interferogram is proven theoretically. Based on this method, simulated study on calculating the variation of refractive index of an axis symmetry media is made by computer and the example of application is also presented in this paper.
In this paper, a finite element model has been developed to numerically calculate the temperature field and velocity field of fluid in laser material remelting process. The effects of fluid flow on the temperature field and the shape of laser pool are investigated carefully and presented graphically to display the subtle changes of temperature field. The numerical results show that (1) in general, there are two opposite vortices in the pool and one is greater than other due to the translation of workpiece; (2) the mainly driven force in the pool is the thermocapillary force compared with the nature convection; (3) the shapes of the molten pools, due to the convection of flow, become flat compared with that without the effect of fluid flow.
Since Fresnel diffraction integral can be expressed in convolution form, it can be calculated by Fast Fourier Transform (FFf) method. It is regarded that the FFT diffraction calculation can be achieved only in the region of Fresnel diffraction. But in fact, Kirchhoff's formula and Rayleigh-Sommerfeld's formulae can be also rewritten in convolution form so that the diffraction problems can be calculated very accurately with FFT method. In this paper we will deduce the convolutional form of the formulas of Kirchhoff's and Rayleigh-Sommerfeld's diffraction calculation. Finally, according to the principle of conversation of energy, we present a criterion to judge whether the numbers of sampling for FFT diffraction calculation is reasonable.
In this paper, the approximated expression of Fresnel Function is given, and that the Collins Integral for diffraction calculation can be expressed by Fresnel Function with sufficient accuracy is approved. Using this methods, in many cases the diffraction calculation could be simplified notably. Finally, the comparison of a diffraction example among the ordinary calculation, simplified calculation and experiment measurement is accomplished.
A general method to analyse an optical resonator is based on the equivalent resonator theory namely the equivalent confocal system theory, but it can not accurately calculate the field distributions ofthe steady-state modes. In this paper, according to the self-reproducing theory and the angular spectra theory for diffraction, the seven-folded stable resonator with circular diaphragms is numerically simulated, and by FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) laser mode-fields in the folded resonator are spatially traced to obtain the stable laser fields. The computed results indicate that the seven-folded resonator with circular diaphragms can easily obtain the fundamental mode, so it can output laser beams of good quality.
In this paper the physical process of real-time holographic interferometry is simulated by the computer calculations based on scalar diffraction theorem and the deformation field of the specimen is calculated by the inverse calculation of the diffraction from the interference fringes. The application the study of micro-crack nucleation process leads to interesting result in good agreement with experiments.
Six novel methods in real-time holographic interferometry recently worked out by the authors of this paper. They are: the one for recording a real-time hologram with high contrast interference fringes and high brightness of the testing optics field, the one for measuring the phase modulation of a thin-phase hologram, the one for controlling the phase modulation in making a real-time hologram, the one for measuring in the 'reference wave field', the one for fast predicting the direction of displacement, and the one for avoiding the light reflected from the surfaces of collimation lens. All these methods are helpful to holographers in pursuit of high precision and efficiency in real-time holographic interferometry.
In order to overcome the so called heat conduction paradox which was caused by Fourier heat conduction leading to the infinitive heat conduction velocity, M. Chester proposed a modification heat conduction eq. from macroscopic point of view, but this paper derived Chester's modification heat conduction eq. from microscopic point of view by means of phonon model. Furthermore, we solved the Chester's eq. by means of Solid Quantum Theory, and made us of it to compute the temperature field by laser heating.
When the time of thermal interaction is greater than the average free moving time of the microparticles in the medium, in general, it may been taken as the continuous medium which thermal properties are constants and 2(root)(alpha) t and (root)(alpha) /t are usually regarded as the thermal diffusive length and the thermal diffusive speed in time t respectively, where (alpha) is the diffusivity of the substance. In this paper, we have investigated the diffusion of the heat energy and defined the thermal diffusive length and the thermal diffusive speed as 3(root)(alpha) t and 1(DOT)5(root)(alpha) /t, with which the physical processes of the thermal conduction in the three- dimension continuous medium can be described more accurately. Finally, using the obtained results, we have listed the applied examples of the laser heat treatment in which whether the semi-infinite approximation calculation can be taken.
The method of handling boundary problems by 'image heat source' is enlarged in studying of laser heat treatment and it is possible to carry out the semi-analytic calculation about transient temperature field of non-cross-cut workpiece.
This paper studies the quenching time of the laser beam with the different power density distribution, and achieves its relation with the spot size and the scanning speed of the laser beam. In conclusion, the conditions and the experiment tests of estimating the temperature field with the assumption of a semi-infinite medium are presented.
Laser phase transformation hardening is an important field of laser application industry, and the choice of its technological parameters influences the depth and width of hardening layer directly. In this paper, from the basic equation of heat conduction, the relationship between parameters such as laser power of Gauss distribution, out of focus and scanning velocity and the depth, width of hardening layer is obtained, and a series of computer soft about choice of technological parameters is compiled. Experiments show that the relativity error of width of hardening layer between theoretical calculation and experimental results is 5.7 percent and the error of depth is 18.7 percent.
There are advantages of less working procedure and lower cost in cool rolling ball. But after convention heat treatment, because of bigger deformation, the workpiece must be corrected and finely burnish, which improves the cost and descends the precision. Because there is less deformation in laser surface transformation hardening, we use HJ-3 CO2 laser machine to study the technology of the surface phase transformation hardening of cool rolling ball guide-distance is less than 0.1, the axial beat value is less than 0.02mm, surface hardness is above HRc 60 and the average depth of hardening layer is 0.2mm. Not only is it not necessary to correct and finely grind, but also the precision of guide screw is improved.
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