Few cost-effective methods exist for measuring the wave front of
mid- and long-wave infrared beams that span 3-5 and
8-12 μm, respectively. One obvious need within the infrared laser community is the ability to measure the degree of
collimation of an infrared laser beam, e.g. that formed by a beam expanding telescope used with a CO2 laser or a system
of lenses used to collimate a Quantum Cascade Laser (QCL). An ideal approach for this type of metrology is the use of
a lateral shearing interferometer (LSI). An LSI uses various methods to displace ("shear") a beam with respect to itself to
create an interferogram that can subsequently be used for diagnosing the wavefront quality of the beam. Since this type
of interferometer is of the common path variety, it is insensitive to vibration making it ideal for field applications, where
vibration isolation may neither be possible nor practical. In this paper we present and demonstrate, through laboratory
measurements and computer ray tracing simulations, a low-cost LSI using a single commercial off-the-shelf uncoated
ZnSe window in conjunction with an infrared camera. This plane parallel plate LSI configuration was used to
interactively collimate a LWIR beam and also provide quantitative transmitted wavefront error data using static fringe
analysis software. We also present a self-contained review of the theory of lateral shearing interferometry, including the
necessary design equations as applicable to this LSI configuration, to enable researchers to construct a similar beam
diagnostic shearing interferometer from readily available components.
Chalcogenide fibers display a wide transmission window ranging from
2-10.6 μm, ideally suited to the development of
passive and active mid-infrared (MIR) sensors. They are essential building blocks for the integration and miniaturization
of laser-based MIR optical systems for terrestrial, airborne and space-based sensing platforms. Single-mode
chalcogenide fibers have only recently become commercially available and therefore performance data and standard
reproducible processing techniques have not been widely reported. In this paper we present a method for producing high
quality cleaved facets on commercial single-mode As-Se fibers with core and cladding diameters of 28μm and 170μm
respectively. The emitted beam profile from these fibers, using the 9.4μm line of a tunable CO2 laser, showed the
presence of leaky cladding modes due to waveguiding conditions created by the protective acrylate jacket. These
undesirable cladding modes were easily suppressed by applying a gallium coating on the cladding near both input and
output facets. We provide experimental data showing efficient mode suppression and the emission of a circular nearperfect
Gaussian beam profile from the fiber. Furthermore, analyses of the beam, acquired by scanning an HgCdTe
detector, yielded a 1/e2 numerical aperture of 0.11 with a full width half maximum divergence of 11° for these fibers.
The availability of single-mode MIR fibers, in conjunction with recent advances in room temperature quantum cascade
lasers (QCL), could provide compact and light-weight transmitter solutions for several critical defense and nuclear nonproliferation
needs.
GaSb substrates have advantages that make them attractive for implementation of a wide range of infrared (IR) detectors
with higher operating temperatures for stealth and space based applications. A significant aspect that would enable
widespread commercial application of GaSb wafers for very long wavelength IR (VLWIR) applications is the capability
for transmissivity beyond 15 μm. Due largely to the GaSb (antisite) defect and other point defects in undoped GaSb
substrates, intrinsic GaSb is still slightly p-type and strongly absorbs in the VLWIR. This requires backside thinning of
the GaSb substrate for IR transmissivity. An extremely low n-type GaSb substrate is preferred to eliminate thinning and
provide a substrate solution for backside illuminated VLWIR devices. By providing a more homogeneous radial
distribution of the melt solute to suppress GaSb formation and controlling the cooling rate, ultra low doped n:GaSb has
been achieved. This study examines the surface properties and IR transmission spectra of ultra low doped GaSb
substrates at both room and low temperatures. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), homoepitaxy by MBE, and infrared
Fourier transform (FTIR) analysis was implemented to examine material quality. As compared with standard low doped
GaSb, the ultra low doped substrates show over 50% transmission and consistent wavelength transparency past 23 μm
with improved %T at low temperature. Homoepitaxy and AFM results indicate the ultra low doped GaSb has a low
thermal desorbtion character and qualified morphology. In summary, improvements in room temperature IR transmission
and extended wavelength characteristics have been shown consistently for ultra low doped n:GaSb substrates.
In this paper we present design considerations, thermal and optical modeling results, and device performance for a
ruggedized, compact laser transmitter that utilizes a room temperature quantum cascade (QC) laser source. The QC laser
transmitter is intended for portable mid-infrared spectroscopy applications, where the 3 to 5 μm and 8 to 12 μm
atmospheric transmission window is relatively free of water vapor interference and where the molecular rotational
vibration absorption features can be used to detect and uniquely identify chemical compounds of interest. Initial QC
laser-based sensor development efforts were constrained by the complications of cryogenic operation. However,
improvements in both QC laser designs and fabrication processes have provided room-temperature devices that now
enable significant miniaturization and integration potential for national security, environmental monitoring, atmospheric
science, and industrial safety applications.
We report our progress on the design, modeling, and fabrication of a step-index miniature spherical retroreflector for use
in the mid- and long-wave infrared region (3 μm-12 μm). Efficient retroreflectors with large acceptance angles and
isotropic performance have several defense applications - for instance, target tracking and monostatic LIDAR. The ideal
isotropic spherical retroreflector is epitomized by the spherical Luneburg lens, which brings a collimated beam to a
perfect focus on the rear surface of the sphere due to its gradient index profile and spherical symmetry. The ideal
Luneburg lens' gradient profile, however, must have an index value equal to that of the immersion medium at its
boundaries; therefore, rendering its fabrication infeasible for applications in air. Although spherical gradient index
designs can provide a good approximation of the Luneburg lens, as of now there have been no demonstrated methods of
fabricating such lenses, especially for mid- and long-wave infrared applications. Consequently, we have designed a
retroreflector with a step-index approximation to a spherical gradient index design with comparable optical performance
to the spherical gradient index ideal. This retroreflector design can be fabricated by molding a higher index chalcogenide
glass shell as a cladding layer over a lower index core such as ZnS using glass compression molding.
Quantum cascade lasers (QCL) are a new class of solid-state lasers capable of delivering mid-infrared (mid-IR) radiation
wavelengths from 3.5 μm to 25 μm. QCLs are finding extensive use in chemical sensing applications due to the
abundance of absorption features in the molecular fingerprint region spanned by these sources. They are also being
exploited in the field of electro-optical infrared countermeasures. QCL devices exhibit an elliptical emission profile that
is highly divergent in the fast axis of the laser waveguide. The
far-field profile of the QCL emission, 62° and 32° ± 2°
for the fast and slow axes, respectively, places stringent demands on the design of efficient collimation lenses. Because
of the current lack of commercially available mid-IR optical components, QCL users must design and fabricate custom
micro-optics to efficiently collect, collimate, and focus the QCL emission. In this paper, we report the design,
fabrication, and characterization of germanium aspheric collimating and focusing optics designed for mid-IR Fabry-Perot QCLs with an emission wavelength of 8.77 μm. Custom aspheric collimating and focusing lenses with a
numerical aperture (NA) of 0.85 and 0.20, respectively, were designed and fabricated using single-point diamond
turning. Measurements of the transmitted wavefront error at mid-IR wavelengths showed diffraction-limited
performance with Strehl ratios >0.94 and >0.99 for the collimation and focusing lenses, respectively. A beam
propagation figure of merit (M2) of 1.8 and 1.2 was measured for the fast and slow axes, respectively, of a Fabry-Perot
QCL using a confocal optical system comprised of these lenses.
Gold and silver Schottky diodes were fabricated on a structured surface of an n-type GaAs substrate. The structures surface, consisting of a square-wave grating with a period of 450 nm and a depth of 15 nm, was fabricated using the techniques of holography and wet chemical etching. Measurements of the reflected intensity and photocurrent were made at the HeNe wavelength of 633 nm over a range of incident angels. It was observed that the grating coupler enhanced the photodetection for p-polarized light through surface plasmon coupling at the resonant angle. A comparative study of similarly fabricated Au and Ag Schottky diodes were made, along with a comparison to flat, non- structured devices from the same substrate. Fabrication induced shift in the angular position of the resonant angle is also demonstrated.
We are currently developing a high-speed photographic system that images objects engulfed in high radiance backgrounds. Using a copper vapor laser as a pulsed illuminator in conjunction with a narrow band interference filter and an electro-optic shutter as spectral and temporal filters respectively, the background radiance is diminished by eight orders of magnitude. Consequently, the back-scattered imaging photons from the laser overpower the radiant background, resulting in a sufficiently high imaging-to- background ratio. Such high levels of background discrimination is made possible by the copper vapor laser that illuminates within a spectral line of 7 GHz with great intensity centered on the 1 nm vapor laser that illuminates within a spectral line of 7 GHz with great intensity centered on the 1 nm wide transmission band of the interference filter. The laser emits 30 ns pulses with a repetition rate of 20 kHz, synchronized with an equivalent open aperture period of the electro-optic shutter. The image is captured by an electronic camera at the rate of 20,000 per second. The image is available for further digital image processing.
We present a new ladar (laser radar) for the detection of objects off the line-of-sight. This is accomplished by a transceiver and a fiberoptic cable that relays an outgoing laser beam to, and a returning signal from a target. The transmission signal is a laser diode emitted beam at 1550 nm, ideal from the aspects of both eyesafety and minimum loss in a silica fiber. In our immediate application, the detection of an obstacle on the railroad track of a high-speed train, the laser pulses propagate through air and the fiberoptic cable, successively. Under a variety of simulated weather conditions and by traversing twice through a 2 km fiber, we measured a signal-to-noise of 300.
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