This paper describes a study of perimeter recombination on millimeter-scale multijunction photovoltaic cells using luminescence characterizations and a quasi-3D PV modeling. Device performance of controlled GaAs 1J cells shows an obvious perimeter dependency. By contrast, the performance of controlled InGaP 1J cells is less dependent on perimeters. Corresponding InGaP/GaAs 2J cells are assessed whose results exhibit combined contributions from both subcells. Luminescence method using current transport efficiency mapping and the PV modeling are able to reveal the influence of perimeter recombination and series resistance effect for individual subcells.
A hot-carrier solar cell (HCSC) is a high-efficiency photovoltaic concept where electrons and holes are at a higher temperature than the lattice, allowing an additional thermoelectric energy conversion. There are two requirements for a HCSC: establishing a hot-carrier population and converting the temperature into extra voltage through energy-selective contacts. We focus on the generation of hot carriers, and the design of absorbers that can make this generation easier. Fundamentally, this requires to increase the power density absorbed per volume unit, so the photocarriers cannot fully thermalize (phonon bottleneck). Beyond simply increasing the light intensity, the main control knobs to favor hot carriers include reducing the thickness of the absorber, increasing its absorptivity, and reducing its bandgap. In this proceeding, we report the fabrication of structures that aim at measuring the influence of these different parameters. We justify our choices for sample structure and fabrication method from the need for high thermal conductivity, in order to prevent lattice heating. We characterize our structures in order to determine precisely the final thickness of all layers, and the absorptivity of the absorber layer. These samples are to be used for an analysis of the temperature with many variable parameters, in order to better understand the thermalization mechanisms and design better absorbers. Ultimately, our objective is to implement all solutions together in order to evidence a hot carrier population under concentrated sunlight illumination.
InGaP top cell often limits the efficiency of multi-junction solar cells. Its efficiency is expected to increase by introducing strain-balanced In1-xGaxP/In1-yGayP multiple-quantum-wells since the concentration of photoexcited carriers into the wells enhances radiative recombination. To keep carrier collection efficiency to be similar to the case of a bulk InGaP cell, effective mobilities of carriers through the cascaded quantum wells are evaluated. The critical mobilities for maintaining good carrier transport as a photovoltaic device are discussed, which provides a general design principle for the multiplequantum- well architecture.
Hot-carrier solar cells (HCSC) can potentially overcome the Shockley-Queisser limit, by having carriers at a higher temperature than the lattice. To this end, the carriers need to thermalize slower than power is generated by absorbing photons. In thin films, a hot-carrier distribution can only be achieved with very high incident power, by saturating the thermalization channels. Ultra-thin absorbers have a smaller thermalization rate, due to fewer channels. However, they typically absorb only a limited amount of light, which prevents them from reaching high efficiencies. Light trapping is an excellent way to increase significantly the amount of light absorbed in an ultra-thin material. Yet, studies on the coupling between light trapping and hot carriers are still lacking, due to the complexity of the whole system. We analyze numerically and experimentally how light trapping can enable high-efficiency HCSC. This manuscript presents the progress towards the experimental demonstration of the enhancement of the hot-carrier effect with light trapping. 280 nm-thick devices have successfully been reported on a gold mirror using epitaxial lift-off (ELO) and gold-gold bonding. These devices have been characterized by photoluminescence spectroscopy. Hot carriers with a temperature 37 K above lattice temperature were measured, in accordance with theoretical predictions. We are now working towards the ELO of absorbers 10 times thinner, on which we will implement light trapping to increase the carrier temperature.
In0.227GaAs/GaAsN0.011 was introduced as a 1.2-eV multiple quantum well (MQW) with a flat conduction band (FCB) in which a conduction band edge of GaAsN was adjusted to be equal to that of InGaAs. This MQW was established as a candidate material for a middle absorption layer of three-junction solar cell since electron confinement was eliminated and a short electron lifetime in GaNAs was compensated by InGaAs layer. The band alignment of MQW was characterized by the power-dependent photoluminescence (PL) measurement under low temperature. According to the band-anti crossing model, the FCB is possibly constructed since a small amount of incorporated N can drastically reduce the energy of the conduction band edge of GaAsN. The PL results demonstrated that In0.227GaAs/GaAsN MQW was a type-I structure when N content was below 1.1%, and became a type-II structure when N content was above 1.1%. The type-II MQW was characterized by the observation of blueshift of PL peak when increasing excitation power. This blueshift is a result of band-bending effect due to the accumulation of excited carriers at the interface between two materials, which is unique for the type-II MQW. In addition, it was observed that the activation energy estimated from the Arrhenius plot provided a minimum value in the structure with 1.1%N; the lowest activation energy indicated the weakest confinement energy of carriers in the structure. These results approved that a transition from type-I to type-II occurred when N content surpassed 1.1%, and our designed In0.227GaAs/GaAsN0.011 MQW was potentially the FCB structure.
Multijunction solar cells are currently the devices offering the largest conversion efficiencies of the solar radiation, which could be further increased by limiting their series resistances. A clear evaluation of the impact of those resistances is therefore required, and provided in this paper by introducing a mapping method of the current transport efficiency from luminescence images. This method brings finer information on the cell than electroluminescence methods, widely used so far for multi-junction cells, and offers much faster acquisition time than what could be obtained with a light beam induced current setup. While it has been theoretically and experimentally developed for single junction solar cells, its application to multijunction cells remains to be demonstrated. The purpose of this communication is to assess its validity and to explain some results that can be counterintuitive at a first sight. Two different triple-junction architectures are investigated and successfully compared with electrical measurements and calculations.
Insertion of InGaAs/GaAsP strain-balanced multiple quantum wells (MQWs) into i-regions of GaAs p-i-n solar cells show several advantages against GaAs bulk p-i-n solar cells. Particularly under high-concentration sunlight condition, enhancement of the open-circuit voltage with increasing concentration ratio in thin-barrier MQW cells has been reported to be more apparent than that in GaAs bulk cells. However, investigation of the MQW cell mechanisms in terms of I-V characteristics under high-concentration sunlight suffers from the increase in cell temperature and series resistance. In order to investigate the mechanism of the steep enhancement of open-circuit voltage in MQW cells under high-concentration sunlight without affected by temperature, the quasi-Fermi level splitting was evaluated by analyzing electroluminescence (EL) from a cell. Since a cell under current injection with a density Jinjhas similar excess carrier density to a cell under concentrated sunlight with an equivalent short-circuit current Jsc = Jinj, EL measurement with varied Jinj can approximately evaluate a cell performance under a variety of concentration ratio. In addition to the evaluation of quasi-Fermi level splitting, the external luminescence efficiency was also investigated with the EL measurement. The MQW cells showed higher external luminescence efficiency than the GaAs reference cells especially under high-concentration condition. The results suggest that since the MQW region can trap and confine carriers, the localized excess carriers inside the cells make radiative recombination more dominant.
Multiple quantum well (MQW) solar cells have been explored as one promising next-generation solar cells toward high conversion efficiency. However, the dynamics of photogenerated carriers in MQWs are complicated, making it difficult to predict the device performance. Our purpose of this study is to investigate a model for the photocurrent component characteristics of MQW cells based on experimental findings. Using our proposed carrier time-of-flight technique, we have found that the carrier averaged drift velocity has linear dependence on the internal field regardless of complicated carrier cascade dynamics in MQW. This behavior is similar to carriers in bulk materials, allowing us to approximate the MQW region as a quasi-bulk material with specific effective drift mobility. With the effective drift mobility and equivalent material parameters such as effective density of states, the quasi-bulk approach reduces the device complexity, and the characteristics of such MQW cells can be simulated using the conventional drift-diffusion model. We have confirmed this model with experimentally obtained photocurrent characteristics. The simulation of carrier collection efficiency (CCE)—normalized photocurrent—based on the effective mobility approximation, or quasibulk approximation, agrees well with the experimental results when the carrier lifetime is set to be in the order of hundred nanoseconds. This simplified model enhances our understanding of the MQW cell operation and helps design the optimal structure for better performance.
Having shown some demonstration of two photon absorption and multiband emission processes in quantum dots (QD), multiquantum wells (MQW), and highly mismatched alloys, intermediate band solar cells are currently the subject of numerous studies. To better understand the underlying mechanisms, our objective is to experimentally probe the multiband operation of this device. We used photoluminescence recorded with a calibrated hyperspectral imager which provides spectrally resolved images with a spatial resolution of 2 μm and spectral resolution of 2 nm on proof of concept QD and MQW solar cells samples. Device emission can be described with the generalized Planck’s law from which the quasi-Fermi level splitting of the three bands can be determined. The advantage of the technique is that it can be used to investigate the intermediate band material without the need to make contacts or a full device structure. We also discuss the usefulness of a dual-beam method.
Multi-Quantum well solar cells (MQWSC) have been shown to present several advantages, among which are low dark currents and tunable bandgaps. They are especially suited for implementation in multi-junction cells, and are highly promising for absorbers in Hot Carrier Solar Cells (HCSC). Such applications require high concentration ratio, which arises the issue of collection efficiency. Whereas it is usually considered that collection in MQW is very close to unity at one sun, it has been shown to not be the case under high concentration at the maximum power point. We propose in this work to take advantage of the luminescence spectral variation to investigate the depth collection efficiency. In order to validate the model, a series of strain compensated InGaAs/GaAsP MQW solar cells with intentional variation of the MQW doping concentration are grown. This has the effect of switching the space charge region position and width as well as the electric field intensity. Recording the luminescence spectra at various illumination intensities and applied voltages, we show that the in-depth quasi-Fermi level splitting and thus collection properties can be probed. Other measurements (EQE, luminescence intensity variation) are shown to be consistent with these results. Regarding their use as HCSC, the luminescence of MQW solar cells has been mainly used so far for investigating the quasi-Fermi level splitting and the temperature. Our results improve our understanding by adding information on carrier transport.
Transmission-type concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) systems are a potential candidate to achieve high efficiency and low cost solar energy. The use of optical elements in these systems creates reflection losses of incoming solar energy that account for about 8% to 12% depending on the optical design. In order to reduce these losses, we have nanostructured the air/optical-elements’ interfaces by using plasma etching methods on the Fresnel lens made of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and the homogenizer made of glass. On flat PMMA and glass substrates, transmittance enhancement measurements are in agreement with relative Jsc gains. The field test results using a CPV module with all textured optical-elements’ interfaces achieved 8.0% and 4.3% relative Jsc and efficiency gains, respectively, demonstrating the potential of this approach to tackle the reflection losses.
The present paper proposes Carrier Collection Efficiency (CCE) as a useful evaluation measure to investigate the carrier transport in quantum well solar cells. CCE is defined as the ratio of the carriers extracted as photocurrent to the total number of the carriers that are photo-excited in the p-n junction area, and can be easily calculated by normalizing the collected current, i.e. the difference between the current under light irradiation and that in the dark, to its saturation value at reverse bias. By measuring CCE as a function of the irradiation wavelength and the applied bias, we can directly and quantitatively evaluate the efficiency of the carrier extraction under operation of the cell, and clarify the underlying problem of the carrier transport. The proposed derivation procedure of CCE is based on the assumption that the saturation of the collected current at reverse bias indicates 100% collection of the photo-excited carriers. We validated this hypothesis by studying the balance between the number of the photo-excited carriers that can be collected at a sufficiently large reverse bias and the number of the photons absorbed in the wells. As a result, the absorption fraction in the MQW region well agreed with the saturated external quantum efficiency as we predicted, indicating CCE defined in this study is an appropriate approximation for the collection efficiency of the carrier generated in the active region of a solar cell device.
A quantum-well suparlattice cell, in which In0.13Ga0.86As (4.7 nm) / GaAs0.57P0.43 (3.1 nm) strain-balanced quantum
wells are inserted in the intrinsic region of a GaAs pin cell, has been implemented by metalorganic vapor-phase epitaxy
(MOVPE) and has exhibited an enhanced short-circuit current density, with an increment of 3.0 mA/cm2 and a minimal
drop in open-circuit voltage (0.03 V) compared to a pin cell without the superlattice. The collection efficiency of photocarriers,
which are generated in a cell upon the irradiation of monochromatic light, to an external circuit has been
evaluated for both the superlattice cell and a conventional quantum-well cell with thicker wells and barriers. This carrier
collection efficiency is was above 0.95 for the superlattice cell, regardless of a wavelength and an external bias, while the
value for the quantum-well cell degraded to be below 0.8 at a large forward bias, which evidenced superior carrier
transport with the help of tunneling through the thin barriers. With such a fast electron-hole separation in the
superlattice, photo-current generation by two-step photon absorption has been observed, using the electron ground state
of the superlattice as an intermediate band.
The present status of the development of an extrinsic photoconductor based on a high-purity GaAs is reported. This
photoconductor utilizing the shallow donor levels in GaAs and is highly sensitive for incident terahertz photons in the
wavelength range 150 to 300 micron. The n-type GaAs crystal has been growth by liquid phase epitaxial (LPE) method,
which is suitable to obtain thick and high-purity GaAs. The impurity concentration in GaAs layer has been decreased to
the order of 1013 atoms/cm-3. By doping the donors lightly in the LPE growth process, C/Si, (background doped) Se and
Te doped GaAs layers has been fabricated. The GaAs photoconductors using these crystals are sensitive in longer
wavelength region than Ge:Ga photoconductors used in the past far-infrared astronomical observations. The most
sensitive detector is obtained with C or Si background doped GaAs, of which NEP is reached to 3×10-16 W/Hz0.5 at the
temperature of 1.5 K, at 290 micron, the peak of its responsivity spectrum.
A balloon-borne telescope utilizing our GaAs photoconductors, Tera-GATE (THz observation with GaAs
photoconductors and a balloon-borne Telescope) is now under development. The Tera-GATE is a 69 cm diameter
telescope. On its focal plane, a photoconductor array with Winston cone has 2-mm entrance aperture and leads the
incident photons to a cavity where 0.5-mm size photoconductor is installed. Measured optical efficiency of the
cone/cavity system is in an acceptable range ~40 percent.
We describe the balloon-borne telescope (69cm aperture) for the project Tera-GATE (THz observation with GaAs photoconductors and a balloon-borne TElescope) aiming at the THz astronomical observations. THz region is the last frontier left not well explored and we are planning to have multiband photometric observations covering the wavelength from 50 to 300 microns and get completed SED data for some Young Stellar Objects in this band. The telescope, we are constructing, has image stabilizing system which cancels out pointing error (up to about 0.3 degrees) of the balloon gondola, and enables us to take a long exposure needed for highly sensitive observations. We will show the structure of the telescope, cold stop design, and characteristics of the image stabilizing system.
We describe the optical design of balloon-borne telescope with an image stabilizing secondary mirror which correct the
pointing error of the attitude control system and enable a long-time exposure. We adopted a Cassegrain-like two-mirror
system, and investigated the best mirror surface figure by surveying Conic constant (K) of the primary mirror from -1 to
0, where the secondary mirror is a high order aspheric surface to cancel spherical aberration at each K. In the small
pointing error region, the classical Cassegrain system (K=-1) provides a wide field of view. However, in the large
pointing error region, systems with large K provide a wide FOV. For λt (target wavelength) =50µm and 69cm aperture, a
spherical primary system has acceptable optical performances when we assume the pointing error around 0.3 degree.
The terahertz waves are powerful tools for the astronomical research as for other applications. The emission from the cosmic dust particles, for example, enables us to investigate the formation of stars and planetary systems. However, detectors with high enough sensitivities to detect faint emission from the celestial bodies are not available yet. We have developed extrinsic photoconductors utilizing shallow donor levels in the GaAs for the astronomical applications. The high sensitivity detectors require very low impurity concentration in the GaAs crystal. We adopted the liquid-phase epitaxy to obtain the GaAs crystals which have high purity and enough thickness. The purest sample we have obtained
to date has the carrier concentration 4x1013cm-3, and high electron mobility 140,000cm2/Vs. The photoluminescence measurements showed the residual impurity elements are silicon and carbon. We have tried to fabricate terahertz
detectors using three types of epitaxial layers, selenium- doped, tellurium-doped and un-doped (unintentional-silicon
doped) layers. These photoconductors all have sensitivities in 1-2 THz at the operation temperature of 1.6 K. The photoconductors with the un-doped layers showed the highest responsivity 30 A/W and reached a good NEP as low as 3x10-16 W/Hz1/2. We have also fabricated an eight-element linear array with feed horns to serve for the actual astronomical observations. This detector array is now under performance evaluation. The performance of the photoconductors and the linear array is described in this paper.
In today's Astronomy, there is little observational results in the spectral window ranging from far-infrared to submillimeter wavelength. As one of the main reason of this, there is no high performance detector in this spectral region. We started the development of the extrinsic photoconductor for this region utlizing shallow donor levels of gallium arsenide (GaAs) as a host material. GaAs is a good candidate as the material of the photoconductor, according to its small effective mass of conduction electrons, which leads to high performance of the detector. We began this development from the crystal growth of GaAs wafer using the liquid phase epitaxy (LPE). Using this method, we have grown about 60 samples of GaAs epitaxial wafer, and several of these samples showed very low-carrier concentration, which is suitable for the detector. And we also fabricated a proto-type detector from LPE grown GaAs wafer, and measured its response for far-infrared photons with several different conditions. The photons of the wavelength ranging between 100 and 300 micron were detected by the detector, and it was observed the highest efficiency of detection of about 0.07.
In this paper, we analyze the steady state and the temporal response of cross-polarized four-wave mixing and show that it is possible to stabilize the gain of optical bus line with the PRCM (Photorefractive Connection Module). We analyze the temporal response of the signal intensity and find the optimum setting for the signal and control beam intensities. We experiment on the two stage optical bus system and evaluate the stability of the bus line.
We analyze the branching gain for extraction of data and the bus gain of PRCM with cross polarized four-wave mixing in a photorefractive crystal from the point of view of pump ratio optimization. The stationary and temporal responses of two- stage-connected PRCMs composed by BaTiO3 crystals are measured and a light controlled optical image bus system are proposed.
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