Hard X-ray free electron lasers provide almost fully transverse coherent X-rays. Though the natural divergence of these X-rays is a few micro-radians, they still need to be collimated or focused while traveling up to 1km towards the sample. This can be done with beryllium compound refractive lenses (CRLs). Due to the coherence of the beam, it is important that the impurities or granular boundaries in these CRLs do not distort the wavefront of the X-ray beam to a measurable extend. We measured the SAXS signal of various beryllium grades and of 2D parabolic lenses made of IF-1 beryllium. Then, we imaged these samples using X-ray computed laminography at a resolution of around 1 micrometer. Computed laminography is a 3D imaging technique similar to computed tomography, but particularly adapted for at extended objects. These measurements are used to characterize the voids and granular boundaries in the beryllium samples. Boundaries between the former powder particles are easily seen for beryllium grades produced via powder metallurgy methods. This is not the case for cast ingots. Common to all samples are voids with diameters in the 10 micrometer range as well as smaller sized, denser impurities. Finally, we use wavefront propagation simulations in order to analyze the effect of voids in the CRLs on the wavefront of the XFEL beam. If the distance "lens to focus and sample" is large enough, the diffraction patterns emerging from the voids smoothen out.
Alexander Rack, Heinrich Riesemeier, Simon Zabler, Timm Weitkamp, Bernd Müller, Gerd Weidemann, Peter Modregger, John Banhart, Lukas Helfen, Andreas Danilewsky, Hans Gräber, Richard Heldele, Boaz Mayzel, Jürgen Goebbels, Tilo Baumbach
The BAMline at the BESSY light source in Berlin and the TopoTomo beamline at the ANKA synchrotron facility in Karlsruhe (both Germany) operate in the hard X-ray regime (above 6 keV) with similiar photon flux density. For typical imaging applications, a double multilayer monochromator or a filtered white beam is used. In order to optimise the field of view and the resolution of the available indirect pixel detectors, different optical systems have been installed, adapted, respectively, to a large field of view (macroscope) and to high spatial resolution (microscope). They can be combined with different camera systems, ranging from 16-bit dynamic range slow-scan CCDs to fast CMOS cameras. The spatial resolution can be brought substantially beyond the micrometer limit by using a Bragg magnifier. The moderate flux of both beamlines compared to other 3rd generation light sources is compensated by a dedicated scintillator concept. For selected applications, X-ray beam collimation has proven to be a reliable approach to increase the available photon flux density. Absorption contrast, phase contrast, holotomography and refraction-enhanced imaging are used depending on the application. Additionally, at the TopoTomo beamline digital white beam synchrotron topography is performed, using the digital X-ray pixel detectors installed.
The methodical development and first instrumental implementation of
computed laminography / tomosynthesis using synchrotron radiation
are presented.
The technique was developed for three-dimensional imaging of
flat and laterally extended objects with high spatial resolution.
This paper introduces the fundamental principle of the imaging process
and discusses the method's particularities in comparison to computed
tomography and computed laminography / digital tomosynthesis.
Introducing a simple scanning geometry adapted to the particular experimental
conditions of synchrotron imaging set-ups (such as the stationary source and a
parallel beam) allows us to combine the advantages of laminography and those
provided by synchrotron radiation, for instance monochromatic radiation in
order to avoid beam hardening artefacts, high beam intensity for achieving high
spatial resolution and fast scanning times
or spatial coherence for exploiting phase contrast.
The potential of the method for three-dimensional imaging
of microelectronic devices is demonstrated by
examples of flip-chip bonded and wire-bonded devices.
NDE activities at the Laboratory for Acoustic Diagnosis and Quality Assurance (EADQ) Dresden are outlined. The applied methods comprise acoustic, thermal, optical and X-ray ones. Additionally, scanning probe methods (SPM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are used. Combinations of different methods are especially effective. This is demonstrated for the coupling of an acoustic approach with SEM. For NDE on a micro- and nano-meter scale, preparation of appropriate test flaws and the verification of the NDE results turn out to be a challenge. To meet this challenge, we propose an approach based on focused ion beam technique.
In the present work the lattice plane curvature of a nearly dislocation free S:doped InP and a semi-insulating GaAs wafer crystals has been investigated using the method of X-ray rocking curve imaging based on the FRELON CCD area detector with a pixel resolution from 10 to 40 μm at the ID19 ESRF beamline. The geometry of the experiment is based on a vertical Si (111) monochromator and a horizontal sample scattering planes in the Bragg geometry (σ-π geometry). To determine the local lattice inclination, the effect of such dispersive setup on the measured local diffraction peak position has been accurately determined and the equations to determine the lattice plane curvature of the crystals under the condition of isotropic distribution of dislocation Burgers vectors are obtained. The analysis of the data showed that the shift of the Bragg condition is almost completely due to the lattice tilt rather than to the lattice parameter variation. Lattice displacements from the ideal lattice as large as 200 μm are found at the edges of the InP crystal. Non random distributions of dislocation Burgers vectors are observed in both samples.
Synchrotron-radiation imaging serves as a powerful tool for
the non-destructive material characterization of metallic foams.
The foaming process is visualized in situ by real-time radiography in projection image sequences. The temporal evolution of foam expansion from early pore formation over pore growth up to the collapse of the foam structure are reported. Ex situ microtomography is applied to the study of statistical distribution properties at the early foaming stages. Various image processing and analysis techniques yield quantitative results concerning pore nucleation and their early formation, film rupture and foam drainage.
The similarities and differences of the metal foaming process with respect to the precursor material, its processing steps and process parameters are determinable.
The coherence of third generation synchrotron beams makes a trivial form of phase-contrast imaging possible. It is based on propagation and corresponds to the defocusing technique of electron microscopy. The propagation technique can be used either in a qualitative way, mainly useful for edge- detection, or in a quantitative way, involving numerical retrieval of the phase from images recorded at different distances (typically three or four) from the sample. The combination with tomography allows to reconstruct the electron density in the sample with micrometer resolution. This combined approach is called holotomography. It was applied to several problems in materials and life sciences when it is crucial to enhance the sensitivity or reduce the dose compared to absorption tomography. Pure phase objects such as foams and fleece structures can be imaged with excellent contrast and resolution. Holotomography turned out to be a invaluable tool to study semi-solid materials with two metallurgical phases that have similar attenuation coefficients. The attenuation and density map yield in this case complementary information, the latter being the useful one to study the connectivity of the solid phase. The dose reduction and increased sensitivity in phase imaging are crucial for imaging thick (millimeter range) biological samples in their natural, wet environment. Results obtained on Arabidopsis plant indicate the possibility to investigate at the micron scale the spatial organisation of plant cells.
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