We present digital multi-wavelength holography measurements generated inside a machine tool. The digital holographic sensor HoloTop NX used in the application has a field of view of 12.5 mm × 12.5 mm, each field of view consists of 3008 px × 3008 px. Three separately stabilized diode lasers connected to a fiber switch serve as light sources. The unambiguous measurement range of the holographic sensor defined by the laser wavelengths is approximately 140 μm and the axial reproducibility is ~0.4 μm. The sensor is mounted to a standard 5-axis machine tool Hermle C 32U. An automatically created numerical control (NC) program enables the machine tool to meander the sensor over larger test objects, here 280 mm × 94 mm. For each field of view, a height map with 9 million data points is generated using digital holography. The images are acquired with 2 mm lateral overlap and are then stitched together to achieve a height map of the complete sample with more than 1.4 billion data points. For comparison the shape of the sample was measured with a state-of-the-art coordinate measurement machine (CMM). The datasets from the CMM and the holographic measurement are semi-automatically referenced to each other. The holographic height data are averaged over a rectangular area with radius 50 μm around each of the 360 measurement locations where the tactile CMM measurement data have been acquired. This allows us to evaluate deviations between the holographic and the CMM dataset. It turns out that the root mean square (RMS) error between the two data sets is smaller than 0.4 μm.
Materials with magnetic shape memory (MSM) are promising candidates for application in next generation devices, such as actuators and switching valves. They exhibit elongation and contraction in a magnetic field and allow to achieve fast switching times in the order of milliseconds while maintaining high positioning precision over millions of cycles. Studying and developing applications using these materials creates a need for fast and accurate methods for analyzing their shape and deformations. We present a technology that utilizes capabilities of two interferometric methods - digital holography (DH) and electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI). While digital holography enables high-precision 3D measurement of the object surface, electronic speckle pattern interferometry provides data on high-frequency deformations with nanometer accuracy. Combining both techniques allows to obtain comprehensive information about the morphology and dynamics of samples.
Using digital holography in camera-based interferometers, 3D surface topography can be measured extremely quickly and with sub-wavelength precision. Using spatial phase-shifting, a single camera image is sufficient to reconstruct complexvalued wavefronts for multiple wavelengths. Recently, measurements on moving objects were demonstrated using setups with 1× magnification. Increasing the lateral resolution by implementing larger magnification in a microscopic setup would open up new application fields, but the larger numerical apertures (NA) of microscope objectives make the acquisition even more sensitive to motion. In this work, we show the first microscopic setup, measuring objects moving at several mm/s using two-wavelength holography. Despite the large NA of 0.42 of the 10×-objective in our setup, measurements can be acquired at 75 mm/s and beyond. Using two lasers emitting slightly different wavelengths (637.76 nm and 632.87 nm), a maximum height difference of 41.3 μm can be detected unambiguously. One single image covers a lineshaped measurement area of 3.7 mm × 0.2 mm with a lateral pixel pitch of 0.47 μm. In order to inspect larger objects, single frames can be stitched together, permitting an infinite measurement area in the direction of motion. Gap-free stitched measurements are limited to 75 mm/s due to the framerate of the camera. Measurements of the groove depth averaged over several pixels on a groove standard show a repeatability exceeding 10 nm at 35 mm/s and 20 nm at 75 mm/s.
The electronics industry is creating complex miniaturized devices with steadily higher power density. The increase of maximum operating temperatures affects the thermo-mechanical load and imposes greater requirements on the quality of electronic packages. Fast and reliable methods for inspecting the quality of electronic components can help to improve production quality and to reduce waste and environmental burden. We present a compact optical sensor based on Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI) that provides a possibility to carry out such control in a fast, precise and non-contact manner and can be integrated directly in a production line. Analysing thermo-mechanical deformations of objects under study, the system is capable of identifying common defects in electronic modules, such as die attachment delamination.
Digital multi-wavelength holography is an emerging technology for very precise and fast 3D measurement. Here, we present a novel digital holographic system that uses a 65-Megapixel camera to achieve high resolution measurements on an 18 × 14 mm² field of view resulting in a lateral sampling of ~2 μm in x- and y-direction. Using three single frequency lasers for illumination in a temporal phase shifting scheme, we achieve data acquisition times below 150 ms for full 65- Megapixel 3D-measurements. The choice of the three lasers enables an unambiguous axial measurement range of 400 μm. On a calibrated height standard with a 20 μm step repeatability of <0.01 μm (1 standard deviation) is demonstrated. More challenging and of high interest for industrial applications are measurement samples that consist of surfaces with varying surface roughness, reflectivity or material. These kinds of samples require a sensor with a high dynamic range and pose several geometrical optical challenges: Light from differently reflecting or scattering surfaces travels through the optical system on different paths. Without compensation, this results in small, yet non-neglectable errors in the measured height values. We have applied approaches well described for single-point interferometers to the full-field imaging system used in the presented optical setup. Without a-priori knowledge about surface quality of the sample, we can compensate for these errors. Thus, the presented digital holographic sensor is able to achieve repeatability of ~0.1 μm (1 standard deviation) for height features consisting of rough and specular surfaces.
With state-of-the-art 3D measurement systems, short-wave structures such as tool marks cannot be resolved directly inside a machine tool chamber. Up to now, measurements had to be performed outside the machine tool. We present an interferometric sensor that carries out such measurements inside the machine tool, which saves time-consuming and expensive setup procedures. Our sensor HoloCut uses digital holography as measurement principle. By the use of multiple wavelengths, we get a large unambiguous axial measurement range of up to 2 mm and achieve micron repeatability, even in the presence of laser speckles. With a lateral resolution of 7 μm across the entire 20 x 20 mm2 field of view, both macro- and microstructures (such as tool marks) are measured with an axial resolution of 1 μm. Consequently, this qualifies HoloCut for in-situ measurements and integration in a machine tool. In this paper, the boundary conditions of integrating interferometers inside a machine tool are evaluated. Occurring vibrations and limited available space are particularly challenging constraints: The optical and mechanical design of HoloCut is introduced along with numerical correction algorithms: A piezo-stage setup is used to induce known displacements. Using these algorithms, measurements even with a closed-loop control of the machine tool head activated are demonstrated on a coin measurement. The use of HoloCut is motivated on the base of the daily operation of a 5-axis machine tool: We present an evaluation of an exemplary ISO 25178 parameter Sq using HoloCut measurements and compare those with reference, yet not inline-capable systems.
Multiwavelength digital holography enables precise and fast 3D height measurements of rough surfaces. To inspect objects during motion would enlarge the range of applications enormously. In this work the limits of this technique with respect to velocity and inclination angles are studied for linearly moving as well as for rotating objects. We demonstrate measurements on surfaces with inclination angles of up to 40° , moving linearly with a velocity of 2 mm/s, providing 2 μm accuracy, and on a rotating cylinder with circumferential speed of 10 mm/s, we achieve 1.1 μm precision. All measurements are conducted with less than 1 mW of continuous-wave laser light, so the object moves several micrometers during exposure time.
Multiwavelength digital holography on moving objects enables fast and precise inline-measurements of surface pro files. Due to the use of multiple wavelengths, optically rough surfaces with structure heights in the micrometer range can be mapped unambiguously. In this work we explore the influence of the object velocity on height measurements on inclined surfaces. We show measurements using spatial-phase-shifting holography employing two wavelengths and object velocities of up to 90 mm/s with eye-safe cw-lasers with less than 1 mW of laser light. Despite motion blur exceeding the mean speckle size, reliable height measurements can be conducted at these velocities. The height map of a metal cone with two different slope angles (1° , 10° ) is measured at an exposure time of 2 ms. Using line shaped illumination, each frame yields a height map of approximately 2 x 17 mm2. The overlap between the frames allows averaging as the image is put together, improving data quality. The mean repeatability of the height information in the investigated setup is better than 4.5 µm at a synthetic wavelength of 214 µm.
In this paper we present a miniaturized digital holographic sensor (HoloCut) for operation inside a machine tool.
With state-of-the-art 3D measurement systems, short-range structures such as tool marks cannot be resolved inside a machine tool chamber. Up to now, measurements had to be conducted outside the machine tool and thus processing data are generated offline.
The sensor presented here uses digital multiwavelength holography to get 3D-shape-information of the machined sample. By using three wavelengths, we get a large artificial wavelength with a large unambiguous measurement range of 0.5mm and achieve micron repeatability even in the presence of laser speckles on rough surfaces. In addition, a digital refocusing algorithm based on phase noise is implemented to extend the measurement range beyond the limits of the artificial wavelength and geometrical depth-of-focus. With complex wave field propagation, the focus plane can be shifted after the camera images have been taken and a sharp image with extended depth of focus is constructed consequently.
With 20mm x 20mm field of view the sensor enables measurement of both macro- and micro-structure (such as tool marks) with an axial resolution of 1 µm, lateral resolution of 7 µm and consequently allows processing data to be generated online which in turn qualifies it as a machine tool control.
To make HoloCut compact enough for operation inside a machining center, the beams are arranged in two planes: The beams are split into reference beam and object beam in the bottom plane and combined onto the camera in the top plane later on. Using a mechanical standard interface according to DIN 69893 and having a very compact size of 235mm x 140mm x 215mm (WxHxD) and a weight of 7.5 kg, HoloCut can be easily integrated into different machine tools and extends no more in height than a typical processing tool.
We present a novel optical system for distance measurement based on the combination of optical time-of-flight metrology and digital holography. In addition absolute calibration of the measurement results is performed by a sideband modulation technique. For the time-of-flight technique a diode laser (1470 nm) is modulated sinusoidally (128 MHz). The light reflected and scattered by an object is detected by an avalanche-photo-diode. The phase difference between the sent and detected modulation is a measure for the distance between the sensor and the object. This allows for distance measurements up to 1.17 m with resolutions of ~2 mm. The interferometric setup uses 4 whispering-gallery-mode lasers to perform multiwavelengths-holographic distance measurements. The four wavelengths span the range from 1547 nm to 1554 nm. The unambiguous measurement measurement-range of the interferometric setup is approx. 7 mm while resolutions of 0.6 μm are observed. Both setups are integrated into one setup and perform measurements synchronously. Exact knowledge of the frequency differences of hundreds of GHz between the four lasers is crucial for the interferometric fine scale measurement. For this aim the light of the lasers is phase-modulated with frequencies of 36 GHz and 40 GHz to produce optical sidebands of higher order, thus generating beat signals in the hundreds-of-MHz regime, which can be measured electronically. The setup shows a way to measure distances in the meter range with sub-micron resolution.
Electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) is a powerful technique for differential shape measurement with submicron resolution. Using spatial phase-shifting (SPS), no moving parts are required, allowing frame acquisition rates limited by camera hardware. We present ESPI images of 1 megapixel resolution at 500 fps. Analysis of SPS data involves complex, time-consuming calculations. The graphics processing units found in state-of-the-art personal computers have exceptional parallel processing capabilities, allowing real-time SPS measurements at video frame rates. Deformation analysis at this frame rate can be used to analyze transient phenomena such as transient temperature effects in integrated circuit chips or during material processing.
Using a digital holographic microscope setup, it is possible to measure dynamic volume changes in living cells. The cells were investigated time-dependently in transmission mode for different kinds of stimuli affecting their morphology. The measured phase shift was correlated to the cellular optical thickness, and then of the cell volume as well as the refractive index were calculated and interpreted. For the characterization of the digital holographic microscope setup, we have developed a transparent three-dimensional (3-D) reference chart that can be used as a lateral resolution chart and step-height resolution chart included in one substrate. For the monitoring of living cells, a biocompatible and autoclavable flow chamber was designed, which allows us to add, exchange, or dilute the fluid within the flow chamber. An integrated changeable coverslip enables inverse microscopic applications. Trypsinization, cell swelling and shrinking induced by osmolarity changes, and apoptosis served as model processes to elucidate the potential of the digital holographic microscopy (DHM).
We present a phase-shifting holographic set-up for the microscopic imaging of adherent cells. The superposition of an object wave field and a reference wave is recorded on a digital sensor with three reference wave phases. The reference phases are then recovered by statistical analysis of the recorded intensities. Subsequently, the object wave phase is calculated by the generalized phase shifting algorithm. After phase unwrapping and background subtraction, the phase shift introduced by the adherent cell culture is reconstructed. As the interferograms are recorded in the image plane of the microsope objective, the full lateral resolution is achieved in contrast to off-axis holography where the reconstruction requires numerical propagation for the separation of 0th and 1st order. Our approach uses three arbitrary unknown reference phases and poses thus minimum requirements on the mechanical and thermal stability of the set-up. We give preliminary results of images from a Vero cell line and pollen grains.
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