Dr. Mitchell B. Robinson Profile

Dr. Mitchell B. Robinson

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Author

Publications (32)

Proceedings Article | 13 March 2024 Presentation

Deep blood flow extraction for diffuse correlation spectroscopy at photon-starved regimes using SPAD arrays

Melissa Wu, Lucas Kreiss, Michael Wayne, Mitchell Robinson, Claudio Bruschini, Edoardo Charbon, Roarke Horstmeyer

Proceedings Volume PC12841, PC128410B (2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3001940

KEYWORDS: Spectroscopy, Blood circulation, Speckle, Autocorrelation, Source detector separation, Tissue optics, Optical spectroscopy, Nervous system, In vivo imaging, Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy

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Proceedings Article | 13 March 2024 Presentation

A 256-channel SPAD detector for time-gated fNIRS and DCS

Jonathan Richardson, Tom Cheng, George Jordy, Matthew Stamplis, Ana-Maria Mandrila Vaca, Michael Bradshaw, Erik Duerr, Marco Renna, Mitchell Robinson, Stefan Carp, Maria-Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume PC12828, PC128280E (2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3003159

KEYWORDS: Readout integrated circuits, Silicon, Near infrared spectroscopy, Windows, Spectroscopy, Photons, Imaging spectroscopy, Functional imaging, Field programmable gate arrays, Brain

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Proceedings Article | 13 March 2024 Presentation

Depth-enhanced diffuse correlation spectroscopy enabled by coherent gain

Mitchell Robinson, Marco Renna, Stefan Carp, Maria Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume PC12841, PC128410C (2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3003352

KEYWORDS: Spectroscopy, Blood circulation, Tissues, Signal detection, Laser sources, Scattered light, Photons, Laser interferometry, Tissue optics, Time metrology

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Proceedings Article | 13 March 2024 Presentation

Multi-channel, long-wavelength, interferometric diffuse correlation spectroscopy for functional perfusion imaging

Mitchell Robinson, Kevin Mai, Yoonho Oh, Maria Angela Franceschini, Stefan Carp

Proceedings Volume PC12828, PC128280M (2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3003364

KEYWORDS: Spectroscopy, Perfusion imaging, Interferometry, Imaging spectroscopy, Imaging systems, Multichannel imaging systems, Line scan cameras, Light sources and illumination, Quality measurement, Neuroimaging

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Proceedings Article | 13 March 2024 Presentation

FlexNIRS: current applications and latest developments of the open-source wireless wearable oximeter for cerebral health tracking

Marco Renna, Kuan-Cheng Wu, John Sunwoo, Alyssa Martin, Zachary Starkweather, Mitchell Robinson, Nikola Otic, Paul Beach, Mehrdad Dadgostar, Zahra Einalou, Stefan Carp, David Salat, Maria Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume PC12850, PC128500C (2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3003292

KEYWORDS: Oximeters, Wireless communications, Wearable devices, Tissues, Spectroscopes, Signal intensity, Sampling rates, Photodiodes, Oxygen, Near infrared spectroscopy

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Proceedings Article | 12 March 2024 Presentation + Paper

Camera selection for speckle contrast optical spectroscopy and validation against diffuse correlation spectroscopy

Tom Cheng, Byungchan Kim, Bernhard Zimmermann, Mitchell Robinson, Marco Renna, Stefan Carp, Maria Angela Franceschini, David Boas, Xiaojun Cheng

Proceedings Volume 12841, 1284105 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3000411

KEYWORDS: Diffuse optical spectroscopy, Temperature control, Cerebral blood flow, Fluctuations and noise, Signal intensity, Cameras, Signal to noise ratio, Quantum reading, Speckle, Spectroscopy, Optical spectroscopy, Liquids, Quantum noise, Interference (communication), CMOS cameras

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SPIE Journal Paper | 27 January 2024 Open Access

Comparing the performance potential of speckle contrast optical spectroscopy and diffuse correlation spectroscopy for cerebral blood flow monitoring using Monte Carlo simulations in realistic head geometries

Mitchell Robinson, Tom Cheng, Marco Renna, Melissa Wu, Byungchan Kim, Xiaojun Cheng, David Boas, Maria Angela Franceschini, Stefan Carp

NPh, Vol. 11, Issue 01, 015004, (January 2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.NPh.11.1.015004

KEYWORDS: Speckle, Monte Carlo methods, Sensors, Cameras, Pulsed laser operation, Light sources and illumination, Neurophotonics, Tissues, Signal to noise ratio, Cerebral blood flow

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SignificanceThe non-invasive measurement of cerebral blood flow based on diffuse optical techniques has seen increased interest as a research tool for cerebral perfusion monitoring in critical care and functional brain imaging. Diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) and speckle contrast optical spectroscopy (SCOS) are two such techniques that measure complementary aspects of the fluctuating intensity signal, with DCS quantifying the temporal fluctuations of the signal and SCOS quantifying the spatial blurring of a speckle pattern. With the increasing interest in the use of these techniques, a thorough comparison would inform new adopters of the benefits of each technique.AimWe systematically evaluate the performance of DCS and SCOS for the measurement of cerebral blood flow.ApproachMonte Carlo simulations of dynamic light scattering in an MRI-derived head model were performed. For both DCS and SCOS, estimates of sensitivity to cerebral blood flow changes, coefficient of variation of the measured blood flow, and the contrast-to-noise ratio of the measurement to the cerebral perfusion signal were calculated. By varying complementary aspects of data collection between the two methods, we investigated the performance benefits of different measurement strategies, including altering the number of modes per optical detector, the integration time/fitting time of the speckle measurement, and the laser source delivery strategy.ResultsThrough comparison across these metrics with simulated detectors having realistic noise properties, we determine several guiding principles for the optimization of these techniques and report the performance comparison between the two over a range of measurement properties and tissue geometries. We find that SCOS outperforms DCS in terms of contrast-to-noise ratio for the cerebral blood flow signal in the ideal case simulated here but note that SCOS requires careful experimental calibrations to ensure accurate measurements of cerebral blood flow.ConclusionWe provide design principles by which to evaluate the development of DCS and SCOS systems for their use in the measurement of cerebral blood flow.

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SPIE Journal Paper | 6 September 2023 Open Access

Enhancing diffuse correlation spectroscopy pulsatile cerebral blood flow signal with near-infrared spectroscopy photoplethysmography

Kuan Cheng Wu, Alyssa Martin, Marco Renna, Mitchell Robinson, Nisan Ozana, Stefan A. Carp, Maria Angela Franceschini

NPh, Vol. 10, Issue 03, 035008, (September 2023) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.NPh.10.3.035008

KEYWORDS: Near infrared spectroscopy, Signal to noise ratio, Cerebral blood flow, Blood circulation, Spectroscopy, Blood, Oxygenation, Neurophotonics, Resistance, Sampling rates

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Proceedings Article | 15 June 2023 Presentation

A 256-channel SPAD detector for time-gated fNIRS and DCS

Jonathan Richardson, Tom Cheng, Marco Renna, George Jordy, Matthew Stamplis, Ana-Maria Mandrilla Vacca, Michael Bradshaw, Eric Ringdahl, Brian Aull, Megan Blackwell, Erik Duerr, Mitchell Robinson, Stefan Carp, Maria-Angelica Franceschini

Proceedings Volume PC12512, PC1251208 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2666270

KEYWORDS: Single photon avalanche diodes, Sensors, Readout integrated circuits, Silicon, Spectroscopy, Sensor performance, Photons, Near infrared spectroscopy, Functional imaging, Field programmable gate arrays

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Proceedings Article | 17 March 2023 Presentation

Non-invasive monitoring of cerebral hemodynamics using near-infrared spectroscopy and diffuse correlation spectroscopy during transcatheter aortic valve replacement surgery

Ailis Muldoon, Bryce Carr, Behzad Khajavi, Alyssa Martin, Mitchell Robinson, Julia Bertsch, Alexis Novak, Liza Parab, Ariel Mueller, Marissa Albanese, Jason Qu, Maria Angela Franceschini, Stefan Carp

Proceedings Volume 12364, 123640F (2023) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2668694

KEYWORDS: Near infrared spectroscopy, Surgery, Hemodynamics, Spectroscopy, Oxygen, Injuries, Head, Electroencephalography, Doppler effect, Brain

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Proceedings Article | 17 March 2023 Presentation

A comparison of brain perfusion sensitivity achievable by diffuse correlation spectroscopy versus speckle contrast optical spectroscopy

Stefan Carp, Michell Robinson, Xiaojun Cheng, David Boas, Maria Franceschini

Proceedings Volume 12364, 1236408 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2650873

KEYWORDS: Speckle, Brain, Spectroscopy, Optical spectroscopy, Signal to noise ratio, Tissue optics, Skull, Monte Carlo methods, Laser speckle contrast imaging, Human subjects

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Proceedings Article | 7 March 2023 Presentation

Multistate time-multiplexed system for functional time-domain diffuse correlation spectroscopy with SNSPDs

Marco Renna, Zachary Starkweather, Mitchell Robinson, Nisan Ozana, Alyssa Martin, Stefan Carp, Maria Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume PC12376, PC123760D (2023) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2650215

KEYWORDS: Spectroscopy, Brain, Signal to noise ratio, Blood circulation, Temporal resolution, Superconductors, Spatial resolution, Single photon detectors, Pulsed laser operation, Point spread functions

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Proceedings Article | 7 March 2023 Presentation

Multi-wavelength multi-distance diffuse correlation spectroscopy system for assessment of premature infants’ cerebral hemodynamics

Nikola Otic, John Sunwoo, Yujing Huang, Alyssa Martin, Mitchell Robinson, Bernhard Zimmermann, Stefan Carp, Maria Franceschini, Marco Renna

Proceedings Volume PC12376, PC123760E (2023) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2649662

KEYWORDS: Spectroscopy, Hemodynamics, Near infrared spectroscopy, Spectroscopes, Single photon detectors, Scattering, Photodetectors, Optical properties, Multiplexing, Mode conditioning cables

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SPIE Journal Paper | 24 January 2023 Open Access

Diffuse correlation spectroscopy: current status and future outlook

Stefan A. Carp, Mitchell B. Robinson, Maria A. Franceschini

NPh, Vol. 10, Issue 01, 013509, (January 2023) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.NPh.10.1.013509

KEYWORDS: Signal to noise ratio, Spectroscopy, Brain, Tissues, Near infrared spectroscopy, Source detector separation, Autocorrelation, Signal detection, Monte Carlo methods, Magnetic resonance imaging

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Proceedings Article | 30 May 2022 Presentation

Monitoring cerebral blood flow with superconducting nanowire detectors

Maria Franceschini, Nisan Ozana, Mitchell Robinson, Megan Blackwell, Stefan Carp, Marco Renna

Proceedings Volume PC12089, PC1208907 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2622923

KEYWORDS: Superconductors, Sensors, Nanowires, Cerebral blood flow, Signal to noise ratio, Near infrared spectroscopy, Photon counting, Traumatic brain injury, Spectroscopy, Speckle

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Proceedings Article | 30 May 2022 Presentation

A novel 32x32 InP/ InGaAs SPAD array for multi-channel time-gated diffuse correlation spectroscopy

Marco Renna, Jonathan Richardson, George Jordy, Tom Cheng, Eric Ringdahl, Mitchell Robinson, Nisan Ozana, Niyom Lue, Brian Aull, Stefan Carp, Erik Duerr, Maria Angela Franceschini, Megan Blackwell

Proceedings Volume PC12089, PC120890E (2022) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2619112

KEYWORDS: Indium gallium arsenide, Spectroscopes, Sensors, Photons, Tissue optics, Spectroscopy, Imaging systems, Head, Brain, Single photon detectors

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Proceedings Article | 2 March 2022 Presentation

Design and characterization of a multi-channel time-gated diffuse correlation spectroscopy system at 1064nm

Marco Renna, Jonathan Richardson, George Jordy, Tom Cheng, Mitchell Robinson, Nisan Ozana, Dibbyan Mazumder, Niyom Lue, Brian Aull, Bernhard Zimmerman, Stefan Carp, Erik Duerr, David Boas, Maria Angela Franceschini, Megan Blackwell

Proceedings Volume PC11959, PC1195908 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2610207

KEYWORDS: Spectroscopes, Spectroscopy, Sensors, Photons, Imaging systems, Head, Single photon detectors, Single photon, Sensor performance, Semiconductor lasers

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SPIE Journal Paper | 19 August 2021 Open Access

Superconducting nanowire single-photon sensing of cerebral blood flow

Nisan Ozana, Alexander Zavriyev, Dibbyan Mazumder, Mitchell Robinson, Kutlu Kaya, Megan Blackwell, Stefan Carp, Maria Angela Franceschini

NPh, Vol. 8, Issue 03, 035006, (August 2021) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.NPh.8.3.035006

KEYWORDS: Signal to noise ratio, Photons, Sensors, Brain, Superconductors, Nanowires, Cerebral blood flow, Blood circulation, Neurophotonics, Modulation

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Proceedings Article | 5 March 2021 Presentation

Continuous wave diffuse correlation spectroscopy beyond the water peak enabled by InGaAs SPAD cross correlation

Mitchell Robinson, Stefan Carp, Adriano Peruch, Nisan Ozana, Maria Franceschini

Proceedings Volume 11629, 116291Q (2021) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2578914

KEYWORDS: Spectroscopy, Indium gallium arsenide, Sensors, Blood circulation, Silicon, Signal to noise ratio, Photons, Standards development, Single photon

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Proceedings Article | 5 March 2021 Presentation

High framerate, InGaAs camera for interferometric diffuse correlation spectroscopy (iDCS) beyond the water peak

Mitchell Robinson, Stefan Carp, Adriano Peruch, Nisan Ozana, Maria Franceschini

Proceedings Volume 11641, 116410O (2021) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2578894

KEYWORDS: Spectroscopy, Indium gallium arsenide, Cameras, Sensors, Interferometry, Signal to noise ratio, Scattering, Blood circulation, Tissue optics

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Proceedings Article | 5 March 2021 Presentation

Time-gated diffuse correlation spectroscopy for functional imaging via 1064 nm pulse laser shaping and superconducting nanowire single photon sensing

Nisan Ozana, Adriano Peruch, Mitchell Robinson, Dibbyan Mazumder, Megan Blackwell, Niyom Lue, Stefan Carp, Maria Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume 11629, 116292F (2021) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2578909

KEYWORDS: Superconductors, Spectroscopy, Pulsed laser operation, Nanowires, Single photon, Photons, Imaging spectroscopy, Functional imaging, Brain, Tissue optics

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SPIE Journal Paper | 30 September 2020 Open Access

Interferometric diffuse correlation spectroscopy improves measurements at long source–detector separation and low photon count rate

Mitchell Robinson, David Boas, Sava Sakadžic, Maria Angela Franceschini, Stefan Carp

JBO, Vol. 25, Issue 09, 097004, (September 2020) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.JBO.25.9.097004

KEYWORDS: Signal to noise ratio, Homodyne detection, Heterodyning, Sensors, Blood circulation, Spectroscopy, Interferometry, Tissues, Signal detection, Photon counting

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Significance: The use of diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) has shown efficacy in research studies as a technique capable of noninvasively monitoring blood flow in tissue with applications in neuromonitoring, exercise science, and breast cancer management. The ability of DCS to resolve blood flow in these tissues is related to the optical sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the measurements, which in some cases, particularly adult cerebral blood flow measurements, is inadequate in a significant portion of the population. Improvements to DCS sensitivity and SNR could allow for greater clinical translation of this technique. Aim: Interferometric diffuse correlation spectroscopy (iDCS) was characterized and compared to traditional homodyne DCS to determine possible benefits of utilizing heterodyne detection. Approach: An iDCS system was constructed by modifying a homodyne DCS system with fused fiber couplers to create a Mach–Zehnder interferometer. Comparisons between homodyne and heterodyne detection were performed using an intralipid phantom characterized at two extended source–detector separations (2.4, 3.6 cm), different photon count rates, and a range of reference arm power levels. Characterization of the iDCS signal mixing was compared to theory. Precision of the estimation of the diffusion coefficient and SNR of the autocorrelation curve were compared between different measurement conditions that mimicked what would be seen in vivo. Results: The mixture of signals present in the heterodyne autocorrelation function was found to agree with the derived theory and resulted in accurate measurement of the diffusion coefficient of the phantom. Improvement of the SNR of the autocorrelation curve up to ∼2 × and up to 80% reduction in the variability of the diffusion coefficient fit were observed for all measurement cases as a function of increased reference arm power. Conclusions: iDCS has the potential to improve characterization of blood flow in tissue at extended source–detector separations, enhancing depth sensitivity and SNR.

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SPIE Journal Paper | 29 September 2020 Open Access

Diffuse correlation spectroscopy measurements of blood flow using 1064 nm light

Stefan Carp, Davide Tamborini, Dibbyan Mazumder, Kuan-Cheng Wu, Mitchell Robinson, Kimberly Stephens, Oleg Shatrovoy, Niyom Lue, Nisan Ozana, Megan Blackwell, Maria Angela Franceschini

JBO, Vol. 25, Issue 09, 097003, (September 2020) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.JBO.25.9.097003

KEYWORDS: Blood circulation, Absorption, Scattering, Signal to noise ratio, Tissue optics, Near infrared spectroscopy, Spectroscopy, Tissues, Signal attenuation, Sensors

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Proceedings Article | 20 April 2020 Presentation

Overlapping volumes, acousto-optic modulated diffuse correlation spectroscopy for increased depth sensitivity (Conference Presentation)

Mitchell Robinson, Stefan Carp, Sava Sakadzic, Adriano Peruch, Davide Tamborini, Maria Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume 11240, 112402T (2020) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2546630

KEYWORDS: Modulation, Spectroscopy, Acousto-optics, Ultrasonography, Blood circulation, Tissue optics, Brain, Transducers, Speckle, Skull

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Proceedings Article | 12 March 2020 Paper

Towards automatic time gating for time-domain diffuse correlation spectroscopy

Jing Wang, Akhil Goel, Lorenzo Vigano, Mitchell Robinson, Stefan Carp, Maria Franceschini, Megan Blackwell

Proceedings Volume 11216, 112160Y (2020) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2545298

KEYWORDS: Photons, Blood, Liver, Tissue optics, Signal to noise ratio, Tissues, Monte Carlo methods, Near infrared spectroscopy, Computer simulations, Picosecond phenomena

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Proceedings Article | 10 March 2020 Presentation

Multi-element interferometric diffuse correlation spectroscopy at 1064 nm (Conference Presentation)

Mitchell Robinson, Davide Tamborini, Adriano Peruch, Stefan Carp, Maria Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume 11253, 112530I (2020) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2546350

KEYWORDS: Interferometry, Multi-element lenses, Spectroscopy, Signal detection, Blood circulation, Single photon detectors, Sensors, Brain, Interferometers, Tissue optics

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Proceedings Article | 9 March 2020 Presentation

Novel detector solutions for diffuse correlation spectroscopy at 1064 nm (Conference Presentation)

Megan Blackwell, Robert Berger, George Jordy, Jonathan Frechette, Brian Aull, Erik Duerr, Mitchell Robinson, Davide Tamborini, Stefan Carp, Maria Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume 11239, 112390E (2020) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2545178

KEYWORDS: Sensors, Spectroscopy, Photodetectors, Signal to noise ratio, Single photon detectors, Readout integrated circuits, Integrated circuit design, Quenching (fluorescence), Computer simulations, Performance modeling

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Proceedings Article | 4 March 2019 Presentation

Quantitative depth selective measurements of flow using acousto-optic diffuse correlation spectroscopy (Conference Presentation)

Mitchell Robinson, Stefan Carp, David Boas, Maria Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume 10878, 108782V (2019) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2510349

KEYWORDS: Blood circulation, Acousto-optics, Spectroscopy, Speckle, Ultrasonography, Particles, Tissues, Sensors, New and emerging technologies, Biological research

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Proceedings Article | 4 March 2019 Presentation

Connecting theory to the signal dynamics of interferometric diffuse correlation spectroscopy (Conference Presentation)

Mitchell Robinson, Stefan Carp, Davide Tamborini, David Boas, Maria Angela Franceschini

Proceedings Volume 10864, 108640E (2019) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2510153

KEYWORDS: Spectroscopy, Interferometry, Sensors, Signal detection, Detection theory, Photon counting, Particles, Tissues, Signal attenuation, Single mode fibers

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SPIE Journal Paper | 18 May 2018 Open Access

In vivo performance of a visible wavelength optical sensor for monitoring intestinal perfusion and oxygenation

Mitchell Robinson, Anna Wisniowiecki, Ryan Butcher, Mark Wilson, M. Nance Ericson, Gerard Cote

JBO, Vol. 23, Issue 05, 055004, (May 2018) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.JBO.23.5.055004

KEYWORDS: Sensors, Tissues, Blood, In vivo imaging, Intestine, Tissue optics, Optical sensors, Oxygen, Scattering, Absorption

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Traumatic injury resulting in hemorrhage is a prevalent cause of death worldwide. The current standard of care for trauma patients is to restore hemostasis by controlling bleeding and administering intravenous volume resuscitation. Adequate resuscitation to restore tissue blood flow and oxygenation is critical within the first hours following admission to assess severity and avoid complications. However, current clinical methods for guiding resuscitation are not sensitive or specific enough to adequately understand the patient condition. To better address the shortcomings of the current methods, an approach to monitor intestinal perfusion and oxygenation using a multiwavelength (470, 560, and 630 nm) optical sensor has been developed based on photoplethysmography and reflectance spectroscopy. Specifically, two sensors were developed using three wavelengths to measure relative changes in the small intestine. Using vessel occlusion, systemic changes in oxygenation input, and induction of hemorrhagic shock, the capabilities and sensitivity of the sensor were explored in vivo. Pulsatile and nonpulsatile components of the red, blue, and green wavelength signals were analyzed for all three protocols (occlusion, systemic oxygenation changes, and shock) and were shown to differentiate perfusion and oxygenation changes in the jejunum. The blue and green signals produced better correlation to perfusion changes during occlusion and shock, while the red and blue signals, using a new correlation algorithm, produced better data for assessing changes in oxygenation induced both systemically and locally during shock. The conventional modulation ratio method was found to be an ineffective measure of oxygenation in the intestine due to noise and an algorithm was developed based on the Pearson correlation coefficient. The method utilized the difference in phase between two different wavelength signals to assess oxygen content. A combination of measures from the three wavelengths provided verification of oxygenation and perfusion states, and showed promise for the development of a clinical monitor.

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Proceedings Article | 17 February 2017 Presentation + Paper

Monte Carlo modeling of spatially complex wrist tissue for the optimization of optical pulse oximeters

Mitchell Robinson, Ryan Butcher, Gerard Coté

Proceedings Volume 10072, 100720W (2017) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2255853

KEYWORDS: Monte Carlo methods, Tissues, Solid modeling, Tissue optics, Systems modeling, Optimization (mathematics), Geometrical optics, Oximeters, Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, Computer aided diagnosis and therapy, Sensors, Natural surfaces, Light sources, Photon transport

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Proceedings Article | 4 March 2016 Paper

Comparison of production methods of a spiral inertial microfluidic cell separation device

Mitchell Robinson, Haley Marks, Gerard Coté

Proceedings Volume 9715, 97151C (2016) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2213894

KEYWORDS: 3D printing, Microfluidics, Blood, Printing, Lithography, Diagnostics, Micromachining, Gold, Plasma, Lab on a chip, Optical lithography, Absorbance, Point-of-care devices, Calibration, Statistical analysis, Prototyping

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