KEYWORDS: Near field scanning optical microscopy, Diffusion, Luminescence, Scanning electron microscopy, Electron beams, Near field optics, Radiation effects, Gallium nitride, Optical microscopes, Nanowires
Direct imaging of charge transport is obtained in luminescent materials by combining the excitation capability and
resolution of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with high sensitivity optical imaging. A regular optical microscope
(OM) or a near field scanning optical microscope (NSOM) is operated within the SEM to allow for characterization of
semiconductor materials by imaging the spatial variation of luminescence associated with minority carrier
recombination. The NSOM system uses a Nanonics MultiView 2000 that allows for independent scanning of both
sample and collecting fiber. The technique builds upon traditional cathodoluminescence (CL), but differs in that spatial
information from the luminescence is maintained, allowing for direct imaging of carrier transport. The approach will be
introduced with results from double heterostructures of GaAs and the effect of radiation damage on minority carrier
diffusion lengths. Then, its application to structures requiring near field imaging will be illustrated with results from
measurements of carrier diffusion in GaN nanowires.
The photoconductors used in the integral field spectrometers of the PACS instrument onboard the Herschel
space observatory consist of stressed gallium doped germanium crystals featuring cut-off wavelengths of 127μm
and 205μm. The measured transient responses of these Ge:Ga photoconductors to a step change in the incident
photon flux level as well as a test setup that allows creation of transients by different methods are presented in
this paper. The transient response of extrinsic photoconductors is caused by charge carriers drifting or diffusing
to a contact region and recombining. This limits the initial gain of the device. Because of potentially long time
constants, the transient behavior presents a serious challenge to high-sensitivity, low-temperature extrinsic semiconductors.
In particular at low IR photon fluxes it usually is impossible for the detector to reach steady-state
behavior during a reasonable observation time.
However, since the time constants depend on the inverse photon flux, theory suggests the transient times for the
high thermal background levels anticipated for PACS to be of the order of tens of milliseconds. Experimentally
we find the response time to be limited by the transition time between the different infrared fluxes. The experimental
studies on the transients are accompanied by numerical calculations. The results support the prediction
that transients are not expected to play a major role for the low signal regime in PACS.
Gallium arsenide is a promising material for large photoconductor arrays to be operated at submm wavelengths,
where currently small stressed germanium arrays are used. The smaller binding energy of shallow donors in GaAs
compared to Ge results in response at longer wavelengths without having to apply uniaxial stress. Use of n-type
GaAs will greatly simplify the production of detector arrays and therefore allow much larger numbers of pixels.
We have grown n-doped GaAs epitaxial films and demonstrated high absorption coefficients at wavelengths
exceeding 300 μm. Combined with a high purity GaAs layer, a blocked impurity band (BIB) detector can
be formed in order to simultaneously achieve efficient absorption and low dark currents. Recent progress in
GaAs epitaxy technology allows production of such multilayer devices in wafer size. We are presenting the
characterization results of our preliminary GaAs BIB structures.
We are developing a GaAs photoconductive detector for far-infrared (FIR) astronomy. A detector based on GaAs in the blocked impurity band (BIB) con.guration is expected to extend the long wavelegth limit of currently available stressed Ge:Ga photoconductors up to about 330 microns. Without the need of uniaxial stress applied to the crystal, this would furthermore allow the fabrication of single chip arrays with a large number of pixels. We are reporting results of the characterization of preliminary GaAs BIB test structures. The experimental work is supported by numerical modeling that includes all contact and space charge effects.
Numerical modeling of Blocked Impurity Band (BIB) detectors is performed using a four-region finite difference approach to study the role of blocking layer thickness and minority doping concentration in alternate bias operation and the role of space charge in C-V (capacitance-voltage) profiling of minority carrier doping. Compensation in the blocking layer is found to play a critical role in determining the net voltage drop in this part of the device under alternate polarity bias. The effect of space charge at the blocking layer/active layer interface on the measured low temperature C-V distribution is modeled as a function of the doping interface between the two layers. The magnitude of the space charge can cause large deviations in the measurement of minority doping concentration from the idealized case which assumes a space-charge free blocking layer and interface.
GaAs photoconductive detectors offer an extended spectral response in the far-infrared (FIR) compared to presently available stressed Ge photoconductors. Furthermore, responsivity at wavelengths up to 330 microns can be reached without having to apply uniaxial stress close to the breaking limit on each pixel. This would greatly simplify the production of detector arrays and therefore allow much larger numbers of pixels. Such arrays are highly demanded for upcoming far-infrared astronomy missions with space and airborne telescopes. However, bulk GaAs photoconductors have only limited sensitivity, due to low absorption and high dark currents. Considerable improvement of the detector performance can be expected from the development of GaAs blocked impurity band (BIB) devices. Our recent crystal growth experiments show that the liquid phase epitaxial (LPE) technique is capable of producing the required purity for the blocking layer. We have also performed far-infrared absorption measurements of doped GaAs layers which demonstrate the spectral range extension to about 330 microns and the enlarged absorption coefficient for the more highly doped absorption layer. Experimental work is supported by numerical modeling of BIB devices done in our group.
Silicon blocked impurity band (BIB) detectors rapidly became the state-of-the-art for photon detection in the near and mid IR range, improving device performance and increasing array size for satellite-based astronomical telescopes. The multiple advantages of the BIB device, in comparison to conventional extrinsic photoconductors, make them even more desirable for far IR detection, where photoconductors suffer from low absorption coefficients and complex transient behavior. This paper summarizes efforts to develop Ge-based and GaAs-based BIB materials and devices. Key challenges include the growth of the high purity blocking layer and the control of growth interfaces. Numerical modeling is presented that illustrates the effect on electric field profiles and device responsivity for variations in net blocking layer doping and extent of interface gradient.
We are presently developing large format photoconductor arrays for the Herschel Space Observatory and for the Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). These arrays are based on individual Ge:Ga detectors contained in integrating cavities which are fed by an array of light cones to provide for area-filling light collection in the focal plane of an instrument. In order to detect light at wavelengths > 120 μm, uniaxial stress has to be applied to each detector crystal. We have developed a method to efficiently stress an entire stack of detector elements which allows us to form two-dimensional arrays from an arbitrary number of linear detector modules. Each linear module is read out by a cryogenic readout electronics circuit which operates at 4 K and is mechanically integrated into the module. We have measured effective quantum efficiencies of the light cone / detector /read-out chain of > 30% under realistic background conditions.
GaAs photoconductive detectors could extend the spectral response cut-off up to > 300 μm. In the past, a continuous progress in material research has led to the production of pure, lightly and heavily doped n-type GaAs layers using the liquid phase epitaxy technique (LPE). Sample detectors demonstrated the expected infrared characteristics of bulk type devices. Modeling of BIB detector types predicts an improved IR sensitivity due to the attainable higher doping of the infrared sensitive layer. However, the modeling gives also an estimate of the severe material requirements for the n-type blocking layer. With a new centrifugal technique for the LPE material growth we intend to achieve this goal. Technical details of this unique equipment, first results of the achieved material quality in the initial growth runs and future steps to optimize operational parameters are reported. If successful, this detector technology will be first implemented in our spectrometer FIFI LS for SOFIA.
Gallium arsenide extrinsic photoconductive detectors offer an extended spectral response in the far infrared (FIR) compared to presently available photodetectors, with the possibility of wavelength coverage from 60 to 300 mm. They can also be made in large planar structures, making them attractive for various far-infrared astronomical applications. In the past, continuous progress in material research has led to the production of pure, lightly and heavily doped n-type GaAs layers using liquid phase epitaxy (LPE). Sample detectors demonstrated the expected infrared characteristics of bulk type devices. Considerable improvement of detector performance could be expected from development of blocked impurity band (BIB) devices. These multi-structured detector types provide enhanced IR absorption and sensitivity due to the attainable higher doping of the infrared sensitive layer. However, the dark current in BIB detectors is determined by the level of unintentional majority doping for the relatively thin blocking layer, thus requiring ultra-high purity GaAs. With a new technique, using centrifugal forces for the LPE material growth, we intend to achieve this goal. Recently, such a growth facility has become operational at UC Berkeley. Outside contamination during the LPE growth process is largely reduced by a suspension of the crucible on active magnetic bearings in a completely closed environment. A sequential combination of centrifugal and gravitational forces provides the proper transport of the Ga solution in the growth crucible. Technical details of this unique equipment and first results of the initial growth runs will be reported.
Numerical simulation using a variable finite difference technique has been performed to study the transient behavior of extrinsic photoconductors and the steady state behavior of blocked impurity band detectors. Comprehensive modeling of transient behavior shows that carrier sweep-out causes a two component response to illumination changes in extrinsic photoconductors. Simulations for large signals on low photon backgrounds indicate that the background flux plays an important role in transient response, even when the signal is many orders of magnitude larger than background. Modeling of blocked impurity band detectors illustrates the field variations that determine device performance. When blocking layer doping exceeds a critical value, a field gradient develops at the blocker/absorber interface due to the ionization of neutral acceptors. In practice, this would reduce the efficiency of transport in the blocking layer and decrease device responsivity.
FIRST and SOFIA are both future IR observatories with 3m class main mirrors having sophisticated instrumentation aboard. The present design of the FIRST imaging spectrometer PACS requires two large far-IR photoconductor arrays of 25 X 16 pixels each, the baseline material is stressed and unstressed Ge:Ga. A gallium arsenide photoconductive detector which is sensitive in the far IR (FIR) wavelength range from about 60 micrometers to 300 micrometers might offer the advantage of extending considerably the long wavelength cut- off of presently available photodetectors. FIRGA is an ESA sponsored detector development program on this matter involving international partners. The aim is a monolithic 4 X 32 demonstrator array module with associated cryogenic read-out electronics. Recent progress in material research has led to the production of Te-doped n-type GaAs layers using liquid phase epitaxy. We prepared sample detectors from those material and investigated their electrical and IR characteristics. First measurements indicate that GaAs has in principle considerable potential as a FIR photon detector. Theoretical modeling of GaAs detectors can help with the detector design and allows the prediction of response transients as a function of detector parameters. Present development activities are mainly concentration on material research, i.e. the production of GaAs:Te with improved FIR characteristics. Results of the current test and measurements are reported. The FIRGA study is intended to prepare the technology for large 2D GaAs detector arrays for far IR astronomy.
Organically modified silicates (Ormosils) have been applied as matrices in the preparation of CdS-doped glassy nanocomposites via a low temperature route. EDX spectra show that a CdS concentration up to about 20 wt.% has been obtained. The CdS microcrystallites of hexagonal wurtzite structure with average particle size in the range of 20 to 120 angstroms were formed within Ormosils matrices. The quantum confinement effects were clearly observed in samples with smaller particle sizes from absorption and photoluminescence excitation spectra. High- quality CdS-doped films with enough thickness have been prepared by spin-coating for waveguide device application. The Ormosils used are thermally stable up to 360 degree(s)C which is higher than the processing temperature for normal integrated circuits. The nonlinear optical properties of these nanocomposites measured by degenerated four wave mixing technique on picosecond time scales using a Nd+3:YAG laser at 532 nm are described.
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