In this paper, sensitivity analysis has been carried out of TiO2 coated fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor for chemical detection. FBG has been fabricated by Cu-vapour laser based second harmonic generation technique. Then TiO2 is coated in home on FBG sensing head by targeting the 99.99% pure TiO2 material by electron beam gun evaporation system. The thickness of TiO2 has been numerically optimized irrespective of FBG design parameters, before depositing the material on FBG sensing head. It has been found that the proposed sensor is quite able to sense a minute change of adulteration in chemical with an accuracy of more than 0.01 ppm. After developing and testing of the sensor, the fieldwork will be decided at Indian coal mines for their possible deployment in coal fields.
The effect of gamma radiation dose (∼1 MGy) on the performance of negative-index fiber Bragg grating (FBG) formed by prolong UV laser exposure (type-IIa grating) and prolong thermal exposure (thermally regenerated grating) is presented for the first time. It is observed that for both negative-index gratings, the radiation-induced shift in Bragg wavelength and temperature sensitivity were less than 37 pm and 0.06 pm / ° C, respectively. The performance of negative-index grating is also compared with that of positive-index grating (type-I) under the same gamma irradiation conditions. It is observed that variation in Bragg wavelength, reflection intensity, and temperature sensitivity was lower in negative-index gratings compared to that of positive-index grating. The effect of radiation is analyzed in terms of “radiation-optic coefficient” for all FBGs. The different behavior of the FBG is linked with a different mechanism responsible for the formation of negative- and positive-index FBGs.
This paper presents the first-time results on design and implementation of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG)-based distributed temperature sensor up to 500°C in a high-voltage and high-electromagnetic interference (EMI) environment. The multiple FBGs at different peak wavelengths were inscribed on a single fiber of length 2 m at the spacing of about 30 cm by controlling the geometrical divergence of a highly coherent UV (255 nm) beam falling on a biprism. The developed multipoint sensor is tested on a high-voltage and high-EMI environment such as a copper bromide (CuBr) laser. The temperature of 200°C to 500°C is monitored online along the operating laser tube length.
This paper presents studies on the role of Ge-doping concentration (6 to 18 mol. %) in the refractive index rollover fluence and thermal annealing characteristics of type IIa fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs). A 255 nm UV beam of low-pulse energy density (∼2.2 mJ/cm2), nanosecond (∼30 ns) duration, and high-repetition rate (∼5.5 kHz) was used for FBG inscription. It is observed that the UV fluence needed for refractive index rollover was higher for fiber having low Ge-doping (∼6 mol.%). The temperature sustainability of these gratings has been studied in a multistep thermal annealing process up to 800°C. It was observed that the higher the total UV fluence required for refractive index rollover, the higher the temperature sustainability of a type IIa grating. The temperature rise of the fiber for a single UV pulse and at the maximum cumulative UV fluence was estimated for different Ge-doping concentrations. The thermal stability of the grating is linked to the amount of Ge-doping concentration of the fiber. These observations may be due to the fact that a high cumulative fluence resulted in a larger stress relaxation, leading to enhanced FBG temperature stability.
A numerical analysis on the refractive index modulation in first and second order of type I fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) written by prism interferometer fringes is presented. The analysis of FBG written by biprism interferometers has been carried out to optimize the writing position and by Lloyd prism interferometer to optimize FBG length with respect to ultraviolet (UV) beam parameter. It is analytically shown that in the biprism fringe depth, the fiber positions of maximum reflectivity in first and second orders are different and both are less than the distance of maximum beam overlap. The refractive index modulation of FBGs written by Lloyd prism varies along the FBG length. The evolution and saturation of the FBGs written by biprism and Llyod prism are different due to difference in magnitude and/or profile of the UV fringes contrast in the FBG writing plane.
An experimental study on hydrofluoric acid (HF)-based clad etching and chemical sensing characteristics of fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) of different reflectivity fabricated under different UV (255 nm) exposure times is presented. Two FBGs of reflectivity 11% and 93% were inscribed by phase mask–based exposition of the photosensitive fibers by a 5.5 kHz repetition rate of 255 nm UV pulses for 15 s and 10 min, respectively. These two FBGs, employed in an HF-based clad etching experiment, revealed a much higher etching rate of 2.03 μm/min for the grating of reflectivity 11% as compared to 1.69 μm/min for the grating of reflectivity 93%. The performance of these etched FBGs were also studied for refractive index sensing of the chemicals ethanol and ethylene glycol under different fiber etching times, hence of different residual cladding diameter. It was observed that the same refractive index sensitivity for both the chemicals could be achieved under smaller etching time, i.e., larger residual cladding diameter, for the FBG with lower reflectivity. This differentiating behavior of FBGs under etching and sensing may be linked to the different degree of densification in fused silica fiber cladding under different UV fluence exposures.
We report for first time, to our best knowledge, experimental measurement of the degree of spatial coherence of a λ532 nm laser source (of a DPSS type - frequency doubled Nd:YVO4 laser) by reversal shear interferometers developed in our laboratories not so long. The degree of a full-sized non-apertured laser beam turned out to be quite high viz. up to 0.6 which is comparable with the degree of spatial coherence of λ510 nm copper lasers we had measured repeatedly for last decade.
Experiments of focusing coherent laser beams being diffracted on annular aperture are carried out in order to verify issues of a two-dimensional Fast Fourier Transform simulation of coherent pure (dark) annular flat beams done and published before. The beam pattern at focal plane (aka the far-field pattern) is a prominent central peak and faint concentrical rings around it. In the course of simulation we calculate the fraction of the central peak power to the whole power of beam that gives a notion of power spread within the focal spot. This fraction is a function of beam annularity i.e. ‘inside diameter /outside diameter’ ratio. The experimentally-measured dependence of the central peak power to the whole power of beam versus the annularity of pure annular laser beams was the major target of the report. The purpose was to verify experimentally the issues of our earlier simulation. We found that from the five experimental points four of them are within 16% error as to the simulated dependence which is tolerable in such a measurement.
This paper presents a comparative study on second harmonic conversion and saturation behavior of three copper vapor laser (CVL) beams of same average power up to 11 W (510 nm), however with different spatial coherence width of 17%, 35%, and 100% of the full beam cross-section. The nonlinear crystal employed is beta barium borate. It is observed that the trends in second harmonic (SH) conversion efficiency and its saturation are widely different for the three CVL pump beams. As expected, the conversion efficiency scaled up with increase in pump power. However, very interesting trends are observed in SH saturation characteristics with scaling of pump beams spatial coherence. For lower coherence CVL beam, the saturation of SH efficiency is observed at lower pump flux and at higher average power. Also, the saturation occurred at lower SH efficiency for CVL beam of lower spatial coherence. The fall in the SH efficiency after the peak is more rapid for lower spatial coherence pump beam. The experimental trends are explained in terms of combined effect degree of spatial coherence of pump beams and the thermal dephasing in the nonlinear crystal by high pump average power.
This paper presents a comparative study on thermal lensing characteristics of a low temperature copper vapor laser (CVL) (LT-CVL as Copper-HBr laser) and a high temperature CVL (HT-CVL as elemental CVL). Interferometric techniques were used to study the combined thermal lens power of active gaseous medium and discharge sealing optical windows as well as that of the optical windows separately at different electrical input powers. As the input power varied from 2.7 to 4.6 kW, the combined thermal lens power varied from −1.4 to +0.94 km−1 for LT-CVL and from +1.4 to +13 km−1 for HT-CVL. The thermal lens power of the windows varied from +3 to +15 km−1 for HT-CVL. On the other hand, for LT-CVL, the thermal lens due to windows was very weak and could not be measured. It was observed that the origin of net thermal lensing mostly resides in the discharge tube windows owing to its higher temperature variation of refractive index as compared to that of gaseous active medium. The weaker thermal lens characteristics of an LT-CVL was attributed to its much lower working temperature and relatively flatter radial gas temperature profile than that of an HT-CVL.
We present the design and results of a cylindrical-lens-based reversal shear interferometer for measuring the spatial coherence of partially or fully coherent UV beams. This is a modified Michelson interferometer consisting of only four optical components. The wavefront is reversed in one of the interferometer's arm by the combination of a plane mirror located at the focal plane of a cylindrical lens. The selected wavefront can be sheared at any arbitrary angle with respect to the incident wavefront by rotating the cylindrical lens, thus enhancing the capability of this design for a real 3-D wavefront evaluation. This interferometer is used to measure the spatial coherence of 255-nm UV radiations obtained from the second harmonic of a copper vapor laser for pump beams of different spatial coherence characteristics, a result being reported for the first time.
We report the effect of buffer gas (neon) pressure on the spatiotemporal small signal gain evolution characteristics of a copper vapor laser (CVL). The CVL discharge tube of diameter 47 mm and length 150 cm is studied for neon pressure from 20 to 70 mbar. The gain evolution is mapped by a specially generated 6-ns, 510.6-nm probe pulse. The evolution of gain at the center and at the edge are found to be widely different for different gas pressures. At lower pressure (20 mbar), the gain at the edge is higher compared to that at the center, however, the situation is reversed at higher pressure (70 mbar). The increased laser-circuit impedance matching and the reduced discharge plasma skin effect with increase in buffer gas pressure are the possible mechanisms responsible for such a changeover.
This paper presents a study on copper vapor lasers with filtering resonators with a focus on single pulse time resolved beam divergence and spatial coherence characteristics. The mode evolution of filtering resonator CVL is discussed vis-a-vis conventional stable and unstable resonators without intra-cavity spatial filtering of radiation. The criterion for obtaining constant characteristics CVL pulses is discussed.
In the present article results of measurements of focal length of a convex lens carried out using non-interferometer methods, namely, the nodal point method and the magnification method were analysed and the uncertainties involved were estimated and compared with in both of the cases.
In the proposed design of the spectrometer provision has been made to measure the reflectivity, transmittance and scattering factor of laser mirrors and their glass blanks before actual coating. The spectrometer is in the form of a double beam ratio recording system and works on the principle of modulation radiometry. The design is expected to provide lower value of uncertainty, on the order of 5 part in 10000 in the measurements, because of use of integrating sphere, solid state signal processing electronics and single photodetector. The remarkable features of this design are: ambient light does not affect the measurements and care has been taken to reduce the effects of source fluctuations and polarization due to presence of optical components.
In order to characterise the laser mirrors, their scattering factor is a useful parameter in the present acticle is described a model of simple design to measure the scattering factor of the laser mirrors for the wavelength of laser radiation. The proposed model of the design is in the form of a dual beam ratio recording system, employing single detector and works on the principle of modulation radiometry In the design provision has been made to minimise the systematic errors such as effect of polarisation because of use of optical components, source fluctuations asymmetry in the paths of the sample and reference beams etc, occuring. during the measurements. The design is equally applicable to measure the scattering factor of the polished glass blanks of the laser mirrors.
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