High speed imaging is applied for drop test on composite samples. The effect of optical blur on image correlation accuracy is described. Blur magnitude is tuned by decreasing the exposure time (at constant sensor sensitivity) for the same drop test series on flyspecked composite plates, while focus, aperture and 1:1 magnification are kept constant. Frame rate (80- 20kfps) and lighting are changed while keeping the same image contrast. Results show correlation quality is already altered with subpixel blur. This study enables to define blur criterion in high-speed imaging and completes study about sampling rate effect in time resolved image correlation by high-speed imaging.
Work-related musculoskeletal disorders are causing occupational diseases. While allowing them to control the execution of their picking task, one solution to physically relieve workers performing trunk flexions is to assist them with an exoskeleton. This preliminary study focuses on the determination of the appropriate measurements systems (motion capture and electromyography) to characterize dedicated trajectories of movements responsible of lower back pathologies. Three tests have been realized with and without a back-assisting exoskeleton for loaded box picking. The results of the study help us to understand which body strategies were used to perform the same task from one individual to another under different conditions. This preliminary study validates this multimodal approach to show the use of a back-assisting exoskeleton for posture harness in dynamic conditions.
The current context of biodiversity loss is particularly marked by the Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) of honeybees due to multiple causes, toxicological, parasitic and viral. The beekeeper has to face these difficulties in order to maintain the population of bees to save the species but also to make its exploitation profitable. According studies, one can understand what is happening inside the hive by observing what is going on outside. In this context, we propose to individually capture by video the flight trajectories of bees and then characterize the pace of the global activity in front of the hive to infer observations that will be consolidated and made available to apicultural data scientists. Thus bee are detected and tracked using image and video processing methods, then the trajectory are modeled. Then, from the extracted data outcome of the videos, curves are fitted as the ideal trajectories of each bee path in order to study and classify their behaviors. Thus, for each tracked bee, the points of extracted centered positions are time-ordered approximated on a plan. The chosen method interpolates the abscissae separately from the ordinates as time-dependent functions before plotting the parametric curve for each bee path individually. Thus, the abscissae as the ordinates are interpolated using cubic splines. The consecutive points to be interpolated are connected by polynomials of degree three. The first and second derivatives of these polynomials must be connected too. This allows the curve to look more natural by avoiding tingling and convexity discontinuities. Finally, it represents the continuity of the speed of the bees too. Experiments on synthetic and real videos show precise detections of the bee paths. Looking forward, through the collected data, the bee behavior could be understood by using machine learning and the semi supervised method must be one way to proceed.
This paper proposes a review of the different opportunities described in literature for quantitative assessment of natural and reconstructed teeth using optical methods. These experimental method are particularly interesting for understanding the behavior of the natural tooth, but even more so for the CAD/CAM (Computerized aided design and computerized aided manufacturing) bonded ceramics reconstructions. Indeed CAD/CAM ceramics are increasingly used as therapeutic options. However, little is known about their mechanical behavior under stress, as the response of the prepared tooth supporting it. In the past years, optical approaches were proposed to get whole field and quantitative measurement of their mechanical properties. This paper discusses the main methods described in literature, as photo elasticity, digital Moiré interferometry, speckle interferometry and digital color holography.
Droplets atomization by shockwave can occur in different issues commonly encountered in the industry such as leak, tank leakage or triple aggression (high speed impact, rupture and surrounded secondary explosion) of tanks. For the last case, shockwave can interact with liquid jets of drops and propagates the liquid far away from the container zone. Very fine secondary droplets can be produced in the worst case of atomization. These small particles can generate secondary effects like explosion in case of petrol derivatives in fire or toxic effects in case of direct breathing. High speed imaging is well suited to study transient phenomenon like explosions and shockwave. A dedicated shockwave generator has been designed to cope with interferometric measurement on holographic bench. This demonstrator is made of thick plastic tubes. The high pressure chamber is isolated from the guiding tube by domestic aluminum foils, the thickness and number of which drive the pressure rupture. Previous works have been carried on by time resolved shadowgraphy to characterize generated shockwave at the guiding tube outlet. This paper deals with time resolved digital holography to perform higher accuracy measurements and of course to reach 3D reconstruction of the whole phenomenon. Lensless in-line digital holography is carried on to improve the stability of the holographic set-up. Different Phantom high speed cameras have been tested as recording sensors, following pixel pitch, pixel size and of course the maximal throughput, from 7kfps (frame per second) up to 26kfps at full 1Mpixel resolution. Different regimes of droplet trains and droplet sizes have been tested. This has also been carried on for different liquids to show the effect of the physico-chemical properties of the liquid subjected to shockwave.
High speed imagers record images at much higher speed than perceived by the human eye, but also enable to analyze it in different time bases. Recording is the keystone of sensor. It can either be embedded or remoted. The advantage of the onboard system mainly relies on the transfer speed to the in situ memory (including at the photon to charge conversion site). Its major drawback can be the onboard memory size limit. Remote storage requires the transfer of information very quickly to networks of high speed discs. If the main advantage lies in virtually infinite memory size, major drawback is the transfer speed between the camera and the external memory device. Choosing an appropriate high speed camera must be done by selecting, the maximum frame per second rate, minimum exposure time versus sensitivity and maximum recording time versus resolution and speed. Some imagers can now lead to 7kfps in relatively large resolution to 20kfps for reduced 1Mpixel images. Optics and light sources are important as continuous light require freezing the object movement by the camera exposure time, while pulsed source will remove the motion blur. For imaging, pulsed laser source in uncoherent radiation can even be used. Aperture of the optical system will determine speckle size or depth of field. Most of the imagers can be employed lensless for digital holography purposes. Small sensitive pixel will then be very attractive for this. This paper presents the recent developments and application in speckle light.
The use of Digital Image Correlation has been generally limited to the estimation of mechanical properties and fracture
behaviour at low to moderate strain rates. High speed cameras dedicated to ballistic testing are often used to measure the
initial and residual velocities of the projectile but rarely for damage assessment. The evaluation of impact damage is
frequently achieved post-impact using visual inspection, ultrasonic C-scan or other NDI methods. Ultra-high speed
cameras and developments in image processing have made possible the measurement of surface deformations and
stresses in real time during dynamic cracking. In this paper, a method is presented to correlate the force- displacement
data from the sensors to the slow motion tracking of the transient failure cracks using real-time high speed imaging.
Natural fibre reinforced composites made of flax fibres and polypropylene matrix was chosen for the study. The creation
of macro-cracks during the impact results in the loss of stiffness and a corresponding drop in the force history. However,
optical instrumentation shows that the initiation of damage is not always evident and so the assessment of damage
requires the use of a local approach. Digital Image Correlation is used to study the strain history of the composite and to
identify the initiation and progression of damage. The effect of fly-speckled texture on strain measurement by image
correlation is also studied. The developed method can be used for the evaluation of impact damage for different
composite materials.
Droplets atomization by shockwave can act as a consequence in domino effects on an industrial facility: aggression of a storage tank (projectile from previous event, for example) can cause leakage of hazardous material (toxic and flammable). As the accident goes on, a secondary event can cause blast generation, impacting the droplets and resulting in their atomization. Therefore, exchange surface increase impacts the evaporation rate. This can be an issue in case of dispersion of such a cloud. The experiments conducted in the lab generate a shockwave with an open-ended shock tube to break up liquid droplets. As the expected shockwave speed is about 400 m/s (∼Mach 1.2), the interaction with falling drops is very short. High-speed imaging is performed at about 20,000 fps. The shockwave is measured using both overpressure sensors: particle image velocimetry and pure in line shadowgraphy. The size of fragmented droplets is optically measured by direct shadowgraphy simultaneously in different directions. In these experiments, secondary breakups of a droplet into an important number of smaller droplets from the shockwave-induced flow are shown. The results of the optical characterizations are discussed in terms of shape, velocity, and size.
Ninety percent of the Global Movement of Goods transit by ship. The transportation of HNS (Hazardous and Noxious
Substances) in bulk highly increases with the tanker traffic. The huge volume capacities induce a major risk of accident
involving chemicals. Among the latest accidents, many have led to vessels sinking (Ievoli Sun, 2000 - ECE, 2006).
In case of floating substances, liquid release in depth entails an ascending two phase flow. The visualization of that flow
is complex. Indeed, liquid chemicals have mostly a refractive index close to water, causing difficulties for the assessment
of the two phase medium behavior. Several physics aspects are points of interest: droplets characterization (shape
evolution and velocity), dissolution kinetics and hydrodynamic vortices.
Previous works, presented in the 2010 Speckle conference in Brazil, employed Dynamic Speckle Interferometry to study
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) dissolution in a 15 cm high and 1 cm thick water column. This paper deals with
experiments achieved with the Cedre Experimental Column (CEC - 5 m high and 0.8 m in diameter). As the water
thickness has been increased, Dynamic Speckle Interferometry results are improved by shadowscopic measurements. A
laser diode is used to generate parallel light while high speed imaging records the products rising. Two measurements
systems are placed at the bottom and the top of the CEC. The chemical class of pollutant like floaters, dissolvers (plume,
trails or droplets) has been then identified. Physics of the two phase flow is presented and shows up the dependence on
chemicals properties such as interfacial tension, viscosity and density. Furthermore, parallel light propagation through
this disturbed medium has revealed trailing edges vortices for some substances (e.g. butanol) presenting low refractive
index changes.
Risk sciences involve increasingly optics applications to perform accurate analysis of critical behavior such as failures,
explosions, fires. In this particular context, different area sizes are investigated under high temporal sampling rate up to
10000fps. With the improvement of light sources and optical sensors, it is now possible to cope with high spatial
resolution even for time resolved measurement. The paper deals with the study of the interaction between overpressure
waves, occurring in case of explosion for example, with a liquid droplet present in the vicinity of the overpressure wave.
This is a typical scenario encountered in case of industrial breakdown including liquid leakage and explosions. We
designed an experimental setup for the evaluation of the interaction between the overpressure wave and falling liquid
droplets. A gas chamber is filled with nitrogen until breakage of the outlet rupture disk at about 4 bar. The droplets fall is
controlled by an automatic syringe injector placed in the overpressure wave. The imaging system is based on laser
shadowscopy. The laser source is a double cavity 15mJ- 1000Hz Nd YLF laser emitting double pulses of about 10ns at
527nm. To record the double pulse after crossing the falling droplets, the transmitted light is captured by a lasersynchronized
double frame camera. Since these measurements are time-synchronized, it is then possible to know
accurately the different parameters of the phenomenon, such as overpressure wave velocity, droplets diameter, and
Reynolds number. Different experiments have been carried out at about 4000 doubleframe/s. The paper presents the
whole experiment, the enhancements of the setup and the results for different liquid products from water to acetone.
One of the major accident scenarios in industrial safety deals with liquid pool evaporation consequent to a tank rupture.
Numerous previous studies have been performed and several correlations are available in the literature. It appears that all
of the correlations are strongly dependent on wind velocity but have nevertheless been all created under a boundary layer
flow above the pool. However, industrial safety bunds do not allow such a profile because of obstacles and so cavity
flows may occur. For such a configuration, is it then possible to describe the evaporation phenomena thanks to
correlations in the literature? Experiments involving evaporation under this configuration have thus been performed in
this work. Particular care is devoted to the wind profile measurement as the wind velocity is one of the main parameters.
Digital speckle correlation insures high accuracy and good spatial resolution. We used a double pulse YAG laser
(200mJ, 15Hz at 532 nm) with a high resolution double frame camera (2048 pixel x 2048 pixels, 15Hz). The experiments
involve 200 liters (200L) of liquid (acetone and water) in a 58 cm diameter pool. The pool is located in the wind tunnel
facility. The study presents 2 different wind velocities (2m.s-1 and 4m.s-1) and four different dike step heights (0 cm, 3
cm, 6 cm and 10 cm). Displacement vector maps are obtained after adaptative correlation and related processing. The
final results are also crossed with IR measurements and open new fields of investigation that will be discussed.
This paper presents an experimental analysis so as to compare digital Fresnel holography and digital image-plane
holography. Particularly, the influence of the aperture and lens in the case of image-plane holography is exhibited.
Optimal filtering and image recovering conditions are thus established.
This paper presents a detailed analysis of figures of merit to compare digital Fresnel holography and speckle
interferometry. The analysis is based on both theoretical and experimental analyses. A theoretical analysis of the
influence of the aperture and lens in the case of speckle interferometry is developed. Compared to digital Fresnel
holography, this element is a critical point influencing Shannon conditions, spatial resolution, spatial filtering and
photometric efficiency. Optimal filtering and image recovering conditions are thus established. The theoretical analysis
is validated by experimental results. The influence of the speckle decorrelation is estimated for the measurement of
mechanical deformations. The same mechanical loading has been applied for both experimental configurations. The
probability density of the noise map is then estimated. Fitting the curves along the theoretical analysis results in an
objective comparison of the decorrelation degrees, and gives keys to compare the decorrelation sensitivity of the
methods.
New trends in dental prosthodontic interventions tend to preserve the maximum of "body" structure. With the evolution
of CAD-CAM techniques, it is now possible to measure "in mouth" the remaining dental tissues. The prosthetic crown is
then designed using this shape on which it will be glued on, and also by taking into account the contact surface of the
opposite jaw tooth.
Several theories discuss on the glue thickness and formulation, but also on the way to evolve to a more biocompatible
crown and also new biomechanical concepts. In order to validate these new concepts and materials, and to study the
mechanical properties and mechanical integrity of the prosthesis, high resolution optical measurements of the
deformations of the glue and the crown are needed. Samples are two intact premolars extracted for orthodontics reasons.
The reference sample has no modifications on the tooth while the second sample tooth is shaped to receive a feldspathic
ceramic monoblock crown which will be glued.
This crown was manufactured with a chairside CAD-CAM system from an intra-oral optical print. The software allows
to realize a nearly perfect clone of the reference sample. The necessary space for the glue is also entered with ideal
values. This duplication process yields to obtain two samples with identical anatomy for further processing. The glue
joint thickness can also be modified if required.
The purpose is to compare the behaviour of a natural tooth and its prosthetic clone manufactured with "biomechanical" concepts. Vertical cut samples have been used to deal with planar object observation, and also to look "inside" the tooth.
We have developed a complete apparatus enabling the study of the compressive mechanical behaviour of the concerned
tooth by speckle interferometry.
Because in plane displacements are of great interest for orthodontic measurements1, an optical fiber in-plane sensitive
interferometer has been designed. The fibers are wrapped around piezoelectric transducers to perform "4-buckets" phase
shifting leading to phase variations during the compression test.
In-plane displacement fields from speckle interferometry already showed very interesting data concerning the
mechanical behaviour of teeth: the dentine-enamel junction (DEJ) and the glue junction have been shown including their
interfacing function. Mechanical action of the tooth surrounding medium will also be discussed.
The dynamics of liquid-liquid mixing is a difficult problem, encountered in many scientific and engineering branches.
Experiments in this field are mandatory to help building sound mathematical models, finding out the best fit parameters,
evaluating the degree of confidence of these models, or detecting traces of unwanted dangerous substances. The
investigations reported here are driven by water pollution concerns. For analyzing the water-pollutant blending behavior,
dynamic speckle interferometry has been preferred to more standard optical full field methods, like deflectometry, or
classical and holographic interferometry. The choice of this technique is vindicated. The opto-fluidic system is described.
A first series of results is presented, demonstrating the effectiveness of the technique and showing qualitatively how two
liquids blend in controlled conditions. In the last part of the paper, recently appeared processing schemes, including
empirical mode decomposition, Hilbert transform and piecewise treatment, give access to the numerical values of the
phase maps computed for each frame of the recorded sequence. These phase maps represent the refractive index
distributions integrated along the line of sight. They provide a better visualization of the dynamics of the blending
behavior and therefore an improved understanding of the phenomena. These encouraging preliminary results should
open the door to a full characterization of the method and to further flow investigations and diagnostics.
Liquid nematic crystals are nowadays more often used to change the polarization and/or phase and amplitude of
impinging light wave. Nematic liquid crystals valves (LCLV) are also called SLM (Spatial Light Modulator) or LCVR
(Liquid Crystal Variable Retarder). This paper will show the different steps required to get a procedure (optical
mounting and computing software) enabling the use of LCLV in the output beam of the laser coupled with a 3D speckle
interferometry set-up. This LCLV generates the phase shifts between the reference and object beams. The calibration
set-up is made of a Mach Zender interferometer with the LCLV in one arm. Interference fringes are obtained and
recorded with a CCD camera as LCLV voltage is increased. The fringe processing is achieved with a slice analysis in the
Fourier domain. Required phase shifts are then implemented in the phase shifting software. The existing set-up already
uses a phase shifter composed by a moving mirror driven by a piezoelectric transducer (PZT). Results of the calibration
are compared between piezoelectric device and LCVR. The phase shifting rate and resulting phase error shows the main
advantages of the LCVR.
Liquid nematic crystals are nowadays more often used to change the polarization and/or phase and amplitude of
impinging light wave. Nematic liquid crystals valves (LCLV) are also called SLM (Spatial Light Modulator) or LCVR
(Liquid Crystal Variable Retarder). This paper will show the different steps required to get a procedure (optical
mounting and computing software) enabling the use of LCLV in the output beam of the laser coupled with a 3D speckle
interferometry set-up. This LCLV generates the phase shifts between the reference and object beams. The calibration setup
is made of a Mach Zender interferometer with the LCLV in one arm. Interference fringes are obtained and recorded
with a CCD camera as LCLV voltage is increased. The fringe processing is achieved with a slice analysis in the Fourier
domain. Required phase shifts are then implemented in the phase shifting software. The existing set-up already uses a
phase shifter composed by a moving mirror driven by a piezoelectric transducer (PZT). Results of the calibration are
compared between piezoelectric device and LCVR. The phase shifting rate and resulting phase error shows the main
advantages of the LCVR.
Liquid nematic crystals are nowadays more often used to change the polarization and/or phase and amplitude of impinging light wave. Nematic liquid crystals valves (LCLV) are also called SLM (Spatial Light Modulator) or LCVR (Liquid Crystal Variable Retarder). This paper will show the different steps required to get a procedure (optical mounting and computing software) enabling the use of LCLV in the output beam of the laser coupled with a 3D speckle interferometry set-up. This LCLV generates the phase shifts between the reference and object beams. The calibration set-up is made of a Mach Zender interferometer with the LCLV in one arm. Interference fringes are obtained and recorded with a CCD camera as LCLV voltage is increased. The fringe processing is achieved with a slice analysis in the Fourier domain. Required phase shifts are then implemented in the phase shifting software. The existing set-up already uses a phase shifter composed by a moving mirror driven by a piezoelectric transducer (PZT). Results of the calibration are compared between piezoelectric device and LCVR. The phase shifting rate and resulting phase error shows the main advantages of the LCVR. The whole set-up, with LCVR replacing the PZT, is finally applied to the determination of 3D displacement fields of Compact Tension Notch sample.
Phase shifting digital speckle pattern interferometry (PDSPI) is well suited for micrometric displacement measurements. It is non-intrusive and without contact for the object under investigation. Speckle is generated when a beam of coherent light impinges the surface of an optically rough object. Designing the system with off-the-shelf components implies the full understanding of speckle generation, image acquisition and processing. This paper will describe the main components and their contribution to the final result, from the speckle effect to the unwrapping of the phase. The designed PSDSPI set-up allows the study from small to large areas and can produce quantitative displacement maps using phase shifting principle. As an application the object is a flat circular steel membrane closing a depression chamber. The size of the membrane is about 20 mm in diameter. The membrane deformation is measured using step by step PSDSPI process while decreasing pressure in the chamber. The results show a typical displacement of about 1 μm for 1 mbar. Quantitative profiles of the membrane deformation can be obtained. Further applications will be presented, including measurement corrections by shape of the object. Phase discontinuities will be discussed.
A lot of materials used in construction industry are materials showing strong color texture, which may give the product its commercial value. We plan to perform automated appearance sorting using a tri-CCD color video camera as a measurement tool. The aim of the present work is the refinement of a calibration process allowing this tool to deliver for each pixel the same information as a spectroradiometer (CIEL*a*b* coordinates). Analysis of the acquisition tool allows characterization of the card and camera behavior (linearity of RGB gains, spatially varying and fixed pattern noises). Color calibration is performed using measurements with a spectroradiometer.
Few conditions are absolutely necessary to improve the accuracy of quantitative measurements of displacements in an interferometer: the accurate calibration of the phase- shifter, the control and the suppression of the interferometers drift. Calibration consists in measuring phase shifts generated by piezoelectric transducers (PZT). We have developed an original in-line PZT calibration based on speckles intensity modulation. A new method to measure the phase drift versus time in the whole interferometer (reference and object arm) is presented. Two innovative methods to compensate phase drift in real time allow accurate displacements measurements. Both compensation methods do not use a feedback loop active control during DSPI measurements. So it allows us to avoid overshoot or oscillation problems linked to the feedback loop. All presented methods allow inexpensive data processing and were successfully applied to an out-of-plane sensitive interferometer. PZT calibration, drift measurements and real time compensation are automated.
Optical techniques because there are no-contact and non intrusive methods are well suited for non destructive testing and for damage evaluation. Image correlation is well suited in mesoscopic approach between successive steps of deformation and can be achieved if the object under study is carrying a characteristic pattern. As a characteristic pattern the white light image of the object surface or the subjective speckle generated by coherent illumination of an optically rough object can be used. The image is then grabbed by a high resolution CCD camera. Instead of using a defined mesh on the object, image correlation allows dynamic link of a point to a pixels pattern called the correlation window. While applying stress or strain, points of the object surface are moving. Between each step of deformation the correlation window and the mesh are then updated. While using a tensile test apparatus the rigid body motion is compensated by moving the CCD camera on a parallel axis to keep the region of interest into the field of view. All the operations are computer-controlled under data acquisition and processing software. The results are presented as in- plane displacement vectors and allow the determination of some mechanical values by external computing. The method is applied to damage analysis from in-situ measurements in concrete manufacture.
A phase-shifting digital speckle pattern interferometer (DSPI) has been calibrated using a Michelson interferometer. Calibration consists in measuring phase shifts generated by piezoelectric transducers (PZTs) and also to determine drift of the phase with time in the interferometer arms. The calibration fringes are displayed live on the TV monitor and then processed slice by slice after recombination following their recording sequence (PZT voltage or time). Dark fringes are detected to compute the wavelength with good accuracy (λ/170 theoretical) and the optical path difference is stored in a datasheet for every slice. This leads to the measurements of the drift and the calibration of the phase shifters with an accuracy about λ/20. Out-of-plane and in-plane optical fiber DSPIs have been successfully characterized using the same algorithm. The method presented also enables inexpensive data processing. Moreover the real-time measurement of the interferometer drift enables feedback loop active control during DSPI measurements.
Digital Speckle Pattern Interferometry (DSPI) is a non destructive testing optical method allowing the visualization of the defects of the deformations of an object submitted to static deformation or to vibration. This method can be applied to a lot of cases within a range of displacements between tens of nanometers and tens of micrometers. DSPI can be applied to detect the natural frequencies and to visualize the mode shapes of a vibrating object. It is very convenient to study small and weak objects because no contact is required comparing the classical modal analysis using accelerometers. DSPI was successfully applied to study a cantilever aluminum plate (5 cm X 10 cm X 1 mm). The experimental iso-displacement fringe maps are compared to computational results using a finite element method.
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