KEYWORDS: Temperature metrology, Spectral density, Skin, Sampling rates, Pulse signals, Numerical simulations, Near infrared spectroscopy, In vivo imaging, Hemodynamics, Brain
This work aims to show the possibility to perform in-vivo acquisitions with high sampling rate (20 Hz) with Time Domain functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (TD fNIRS) for studying brain resting state oscillations. Based on numerical simulations, a protocol was designed for acquiring hemodynamics parameters on 13 healthy volunteers during normal and forced respiration. Both the experiments had a length of 15 minutes and during the forced respiration one, subjects were ask to breath at 5 breaths per minute (0.083 Hz) following a metronome. Systemic (UP) and cortical (DW) oxy- (O2Hb) and deoxy- (HHb) hemoglobin concentrations (absolute values) were successfully retrieved with a single measure on the frontal lobe. Temporal series and Power Spectral Density (PSD) were calculated for: physiological signals (electrocardiogram, breath signal, blood volume pulse, skin conductance and temperature), total counts at the two wavelengths (RED = 689.5±0.5 nm and IR=828.5±0.5 nm), counts in temporal gates for RED and IR, absolute values of O2Hb_UP, O2Hb_DW, HHb_UP and HHb_DW. Specific characteristic peaks were evaluated in the cardiac, respiratory, low, and very low frequency bands. The behavior among the subjects was uniform and differences between the two experiments were found.
Muscle aging is characterized by the loss of muscle mass and strength that starts mostly after 50yr and, according to the World Health Organization (2000), it is one of the major causes of independence loss and a risk factor for the development of morbidities at older age. Early diagnosis and treatment are paramount for the progression of the disease. The “Trajector-AGE” project focuses on the study of neuromuscular decline in middle-aged and old populations. Within this project, different techniques are exploited to investigate muscle health (e.g., biopsy, electromyography, Near Infrared Spectroscopy), and among them, Time Domain Near Infrared Spectroscopy (TD-NIRS) and diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) are non-invasive optical techniques which enable to assess muscle oxidative metabolism and perfusion respectively. During the project life, we plan to recruit 100 individuals to evaluate differences among the hemodynamics and microcirculation responses of the vastus lateralis to arterial occlusion and incremental cycling in different age-groups (55–60yrs, middle-aged population; 75-80yrs, old population). The main parameters extrapolated will be the time courses for oxy- (HbO2), deoxy- (HHb), total- hemoglobin (tHb), tissue oxygen saturation (StO2) and blood flow index (BFI). From these, biomarkers for the neuromuscular decline will be defined. At the time of this work, 21 subjects were already acquired. Here, we present the preliminary results from 1 healthy volunteer.
We present a simulation study to evaluate the feasibility of using Time Domain fNIRS to monitor hemodynamic oscillations in biological tissues like the cerebral cortex. Two geometries (slab and two-layer medium) were considered to define the optimal acquisition parameters and to assess the ability of the technique to detect and separate oscillations occurring at different depths within the probed medium by exploiting the time-gating of TD fNIRS signals.
SignificanceContinuous wave near infrared spectroscopy (CW-NIRS) is widely exploited in clinics to estimate skeletal muscles and brain cortex oxygenation. Spatially resolved spectroscopy (SRS) is generally implemented in commercial devices. However, SRS suffers from two main limitations: the a priori assumption on the spectral dependence of the reduced scattering coefficient [μs′(λ)] and the modeling of tissue as homogeneous.AimWe studied the accuracy and robustness of SRS NIRS. We investigated the errors in retrieving hemodynamic parameters, in particular tissue oxygen saturation (StO2), when μs′(λ) was varied from expected values, and when layered tissue was considered.ApproachWe simulated hemodynamic variations mimicking real-life scenarios for skeletal muscles. Simulations were performed by exploiting the analytical solutions of the photon diffusion equation in different geometries: (1) semi-infinite homogeneous medium and constant μs′(λ); (2) semi-infinite homogeneous medium and linear changes in μs′(λ); (3) two-layered media with a superficial thickness s1 = 5, 7.5, 10 mm and constant μs′(λ). All simulated data were obtained at source-detector distances ρ = 35, 40, 45 mm, and analyzed with the SRS approach to derive hemodynamic parameters (concentration of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin, total hemoglobin concentration, and tissue oxygen saturation, StO2) and their relative error.ResultsVariations in μs′(λ) affect the estimated StO2 (up to ±10 % ), especially if changes are different at the two wavelengths. However, the main limitation of the SRS method is the presence of a superficial layer: errors strongly larger than 20% were retrieved for the estimated StO2 when the superficial thickness exceeds 5 mm.ConclusionsThese results highlight the need for more sophisticated strategies (e.g., the use of multiple short and long distances) to reduce the influence of superficial tissues in retrieving hemodynamic parameters and warn the SRS users to be aware of the intrinsic limitation of this approach, particularly when exploited in the clinical environment.
Significance: Multi-laboratory initiatives are essential in performance assessment and standardization—crucial for bringing biophotonics to mature clinical use—to establish protocols and develop reference tissue phantoms that all will allow universal instrument comparison.
Aim: The largest multi-laboratory comparison of performance assessment in near-infrared diffuse optics is presented, involving 28 instruments and 12 institutions on a total of eight experiments based on three consolidated protocols (BIP, MEDPHOT, and NEUROPT) as implemented on three kits of tissue phantoms. A total of 20 synthetic indicators were extracted from the dataset, some of them defined here anew.
Approach: The exercise stems from the Innovative Training Network BitMap funded by the European Commission and expanded to include other European laboratories. A large variety of diffuse optics instruments were considered, based on different approaches (time domain/frequency domain/continuous wave), at various stages of maturity and designed for different applications (e.g., oximetry, spectroscopy, and imaging).
Results: This study highlights a substantial difference in hardware performances (e.g., nine decades in responsivity, four decades in dark count rate, and one decade in temporal resolution). Agreement in the estimates of homogeneous optical properties was within 12% of the median value for half of the systems, with a temporal stability of <5 % over 1 h, and day-to-day reproducibility of <3 % . Other tests encompassed linearity, crosstalk, uncertainty, and detection of optical inhomogeneities.
Conclusions: This extensive multi-laboratory exercise provides a detailed assessment of near-infrared Diffuse optical instruments and can be used for reference grading. The dataset—available soon in an open data repository—can be evaluated in multiple ways, for instance, to compare different analysis tools or study the impact of hardware implementations.
Neural and cerebral hemodynamic activities of 16 programmers were monitored during programming tasks by simultaneous EEG and Time-Domain fNIRS measurements aiming at identifying cognitive and emotional states during code programming.
KEYWORDS: Near infrared spectroscopy, Tissue optics, Optical properties, In vivo imaging, Scattering, Tissues, Absorption, Photons, Time metrology, Spectroscopy
We present simulation and in-vivo Time Domain NIRS studies to investigate differential pathlength factor in skeletal muscles at rest and its dependence on the subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness, tissue absorption and reduced scattering coefficients.
KEYWORDS: 3D printing, Mass attenuation coefficient, Printing, 3D metrology, Near infrared spectroscopy, Diffuse optical imaging, 3D acquisition, Spectroscopy, Photons, Optical properties
PLA and ABS filaments, 3D printed as thin sheets were optically characterized in UV/VIS/NIR. The applicability of these materials, used as optical probes, in diffused optics applications was tested through TD-NIRS and DCS measurements.
In this TD-fNIRS study on 98 subjects, primary open angle glaucoma patients have an involvement of the occipital (visual) cortical region; we assess the best fNIRS parameters for discriminating between glaucoma patients and healthy subjects.
We report on a preliminary longitudinal study on 21 elderly patients to non-invasively quantify rehabilitation outcomes in skeletal muscle after bed-rest by a combined approach based on TD-NIRS (for hemodynamics) and sEMG (for myoelectric recordings).
We assess the muscular fatigue during sustained exercises with both sEMG and TD-NIRS. We found that during the “slow” phase of TD-NIRS signal, the best fatigue biomarkers are: MF, O2Hb, HHb and SO2.
Performance assessment and standardization are indispensable for instruments of clinical relevance in general and clinical instrumentation based on photon migration/diffuse optics in particular. In this direction, a multi-laboratory exercise was initiated with the aim of assessing and comparing their performances. 29 diffuse optical instruments belonging to 11 partner institutions of a European level Marie Curie Consortium BitMap1 were considered for this exercise. The enrolled instruments covered different approaches (continuous wave, CW; frequency domain, FD; time domain, TD and spatial frequency domain imaging, SFDI) and applications (e.g. mammography, oximetry, functional imaging, tissue spectroscopy). 10 different tests from 3 well-accepted protocols, namely, the MEDPHOT2 , the BIP3 , and the nEUROPt4 protocols were chosen for the exercise and the necessary phantoms kits were circulated across labs and institutions enrolled in the study. A brief outline of the methodology of the exercise is presented here. Mainly, the design of some of the synthetic descriptors, (single numeric values used to summarize the result of a test and facilitate comparison between instruments) for some of the tests will be discussed.. Future actions of the exercise aim at deploying these measurements onto an open data repository and investigating common analysis tools for the whole dataset.
Functional near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a widespread non-invasive technique to monitor skeletal muscle metabolism. However, only variation of oxygenated (HHb), deoxygenated (O2Hb), total (tHb) hemoglobin and saturation (SO2) are usually reported. In this study, Time Domain (TD) NIRS approach was exploited to perform a preliminary quantitative characterization of vastus lateralis muscle during incremental exercise. A population of 11 healthy young male subjects performed on a mechanical cycle ergometer an incremental exercise (initial work rate range = 60-96 W, increment = 12-18 W/min) until exhaustion. TD NIRS, heart rate, pulmonary ventilation (VE), O2 uptake (VO2), CO2 output (VCO2), blood lactate concentration ([La]b) and Borg scale were measured during the exercise. From TD NIRS, muscles absolute values of absorption and scattering coefficients were obtained with a homogeneous approach and hemoglobin concentrations and saturation levels were calculated. The time courses of HHb, O2Hb, tHb and SO2 were consistent with previous literature results. A high inter-subject variability was found for both optical properties and hemodynamic concentrations. Further statistical group analysis will be required in order to highlight significant behavior within the population and correlation with physiological parameters.
Time-resolved (TR) techniques are exploited in many biomedical applications in order to find absolute values of absorption (μa) and reduced scattering (μs’) coefficients that characterize biological tissues chemical and microstructure properties. However, the concomitant acquisition of tissue distribution time-of-flight (DTOF) and instrument response function (IRF) is necessary to perform quantitative measurements. This can be a non-trivial time consuming operation which typically requires to detach the optical fibers from the measurement probe (usually put in a reflectance configuration for in-vivo applications) in order to face them one to each other (“reference” geometry). To overcome these difficulties, a new IRF measurement method that exploit the “reflectance” geometry is here proposed. A practical 3D printed implementation has been carried out for a specific device to test the feasibility of this approach and if the IRF acquired in the “reflectance” geometry is equivalent to the “reference” one. A particular problem addressed is the determination of the temporal shift T0 that can occur between IRF and sample DTOF. Two different approaches, based respectively on the curves barycenters difference and on a calibration phantom, are proposed. Both methods are valid and indifferently applicable according to specific measurement requirements. This allows “reflectance” IRF acquisition to be eligible as standard methodology for TR measurements.
Glaucoma is a multifactorial optic neuropathy characterized by progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells, changes in optic disk morphology and visual field defects; its pathophysiology is still unclear. Recently it was demonstrated that glaucoma can be associated with a degenerative effect at the level of the optic nerve and the primary visual cortex. Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a non-invasive optical technique, which allows the brain hemodynamic monitoring. In particular, the Time Domain fNIRS (TD-fNIRS) allows to remove from the detected signal the contribution coming from the surface (scalp, skull and cerebral fluid) in order to obtain the brain hemodynamic activation. The aim of this preliminary study is to understand if in the glaucomatous patients, the visual cortex activation during a visual stimulus is different from the one of a control group. A total of 20 subjects took part to the study. We divided them into three groups: 7 controls, 5 ocular hypertension (HYPER), and 8 glaucoma. The hemodynamic time courses of oxy- (OHB) and deoxy- (HHB) hemoglobin were compared with a hemodynamic response function (HRF) with the adaptive HRF approach. Finally, an inference test was applied (t-student) to statistically determine the visual cortex activation (simultaneous increase in OHB and decrease in HHB). The p-value threshold was set at 0.05. The 86% of the controls and the 80% of the HYPER combinations are activated; while the 81% of the glaucoma ones are not, outlining a well-defined trend. Also the OHB and HHB show drastic differences between controls and patients.
In this paper we present a Time Resolved Near Infrared device for bed-side neuromonitoring of ischemic stroke patients. This system features three wavelengths allowing a better and robust retrieval of the absolute values of oxy and deoxyhaemoglobin. The device has been fully characterized following the guidelines of the MEDPHOT and BIP protocols, developed under NEUROPt project. Time Resolved spectroscopy is a promising technology that can provide reproducible results in terms of absorption and scattering coefficients. This portable and non-invasive system has been proven suitable for operation in clinical settings.
Data were collected from a cohort of 47 ischemic stroke patients and, according to their cerebral impairment, compared with normal values obtained from a group of 35 healthy subjects. Significant differences in haemoglobin species concentration and saturation were found between healthy and ischemic stroke patients. In the ischemic area of both recanalized and non-recanalized ischemic stroke patients, deoxy-haemoglobin and total haemoglobin values are higher than in controls, while tissue oxygen saturation values are lower only in recanalized patients.
Large vessel occlusion (LVO) stroke might cause different degrees of hemodynamic impairment that affects microcirculation and contributes to metabolic derangement. Time-domain near-infrared spectroscopy (TD-NIRS) estimates the oxygenation of microcirculation of cerebral outer layers. We measure hemoglobin species and tissue oxygen saturation (StO2) of anterior circulation stroke patients, classified as LVO or lacunar, and assess the differences compared with controls and according to LVO recanalization status. Fiducial markers categorize the brain region below each TD-NIRS probe as ischemic or nonstroke areas. The study includes 47 consecutive acute ischemic stroke patients and 35 controls. The ischemic area has significantly higher deoxy-hemoglobin (HbR) and total hemoglobin (HbT) compared with controls in both recanalized and nonrecanalized patients but lower StO2 only in recanalized patients. Recanalized patients have significantly lower mean StO2 in the ipsilateral hemisphere compared with nonrecanalized patients. This is the first study to report TD-NIRS measurements in acute ischemic stroke patients. TD-NIRS is able to detect significant differences in hemoglobin species in LVO stroke compared with controls and according to recanalization status. This preliminary data might suggest that StO2 can serve as a surrogate functional marker of the metabolic activity of rescued brain tissue.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Optical fibers, Silicon photomultipliers, In vivo imaging, Absorption, Hemodynamics, Brain, Near infrared spectroscopy, Signal detection, Electroencephalography
We report the development of a compact probe for time-domain (TD) functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) based on a fast silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) that can be put directly in contact with the sample without the need of optical fibers for light collection. We directly integrated an avalanche signal amplification stage close to the SiPM, thus reducing the size of the detection channel and optimizing the signal immunity to electromagnetic interferences. The whole detection electronics was placed in a plastic screw holder compatible with the electroencephalography standard cap for measurement on brain or with custom probe holders. The SiPM is inserted into a transparent and insulating resin to avoid the direct contact of the scalp with the 100-V bias voltage. The probe was integrated in an instrument for TD fNIRS spectroscopy. The system was characterized on tissue phantoms in terms of temporal resolution, responsivity, linearity, and capability to detect deep absorption changes. Preliminary in vivo tests on adult volunteers were performed to monitor hemodynamic changes in the arm during a cuff occlusion and in the brain cortex during a motor task.
A mechanically switchable solid inhomogeneous phantom simulating localized absorption changes was developed and characterized. The homogeneous host phantom was made of epoxy resin with black toner and titanium dioxide particles added as absorbing and scattering components, respectively. A cylindrical rod, movable along a hole in the block and made of the same material, has a black polyvinyl chloride cylinder embedded in its center. By varying the volume and position of the black inclusion, absorption perturbations can be generated over a large range of magnitudes. The phantom has been characterized by various time-domain diffuse optics instruments in terms of absorption and scattering spectra, transmittance images, and reflectance contrast. Addressing a major application of the phantom for performance characterization for functional near-infrared spectroscopy of the brain, the contrast was measured in reflectance mode while black cylinders of volumes from ≈20 mm3 to ≈270 mm3 were moved in lateral and depth directions, respectively. The new type of solid inhomogeneous phantom is expected to become a useful tool for routine quality check of clinical instruments or implementation of industrial standards provided an experimental characterization of the phantom is performed in advance.
KEYWORDS: Hemodynamics, Near infrared spectroscopy, Tissue optics, In vivo imaging, Tissues, Computer simulations, Chromophores, Data modeling, Error analysis, Picosecond phenomena
In reflectance spectroscopy, a major concern is the possibility to discriminate signals coming from different layers of the investigated medium. In this work, the case of time-domain near infrared spectroscopy of muscle is studied with particular attention in the estimation of the pathlength in the different tissue’s layers and its impact in the calculation of chromophores concentration.
We propose a simple and reliable solid phantom for mimicking realistic localized absorption changes within a diffusive medium. The phantom is based on a solid matrix holding a movable black inclusion embedded in a rod. Translating the rod parallel to the phantom surface, the inhomogeneity can be positioned beneath the source-detector pair (perturbed case) or far from it (unperturbed case). Examples of time-resolved transmittance measurements and time-resolved reflectance scans are shown to demonstrate the properties and the versatility of the phantom.
We propose a simple and reliable solid phantom for mimicking localized absorption changes within a diffusive medium. The phantom is based on the Equivalence Relation stating that any realistic absorption inhomogeneity can be mimicked by a totally absorbing sphere of adequate volume. Applying this concept, we constructed a solid phantom holding a movable black inclusion to be positioned beneath the source-detector pair (perturbed case) or far from it (unperturbed case). Different absorption perturbations can be mimicked by changing the volume and the position of the black object both in transmittance and reflectance configuration. Time-resolved measurements of transmittance images and a lateral reflectance scan are presented.
The nEUROPt protocol is one of two new protocols developed within the European project nEUROPt to characterize the performances of time-domain systems for optical imaging of the brain. It was applied in joint measurement campaigns to compare the various instruments and to assess the impact of technical improvements. This protocol addresses the characteristic of optical brain imaging to detect, localize, and quantify absorption changes in the brain. It was implemented with two types of inhomogeneous liquid phantoms based on Intralipid and India ink with well-defined optical properties. First, small black inclusions were used to mimic localized changes of the absorption coefficient. The position of the inclusions was varied in depth and lateral direction to investigate contrast and spatial resolution. Second, two-layered liquid phantoms with variable absorption coefficients were employed to study the quantification of layer-wide changes and, in particular, to determine depth selectivity, i.e., the ratio of sensitivities for deep and superficial absorption changes. We introduce the tests of the nEUROPt protocol and present examples of results obtained with different instruments and methods of data analysis. This protocol could be a useful step toward performance tests for future standards in diffuse optical imaging.
We recorded maps of cortical and systemic hemodynamic responses (oxy-hemoglobin, O2Hb and deoxy-hemoglobin, HHb) during incremental neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) of the right forearm in nine subjects by a 32- channel time domain fNIRS (TD-fNIRS) instrument. Statistical parametric maps (SPM) relative to the different current stimulations (under and over the maximal tolerated intensity-MTI) versus the 10%MTI were generated. Exploiting the temporal information contained in the TD-fNIRS signal it was possible to create different maps referring to the deeper (cortical activations) and the more superficial (systemic changes) head layers. The increasing of the stimulation current on the right forearm muscle produced a significantly larger bilateral sensorimotor and prefrontal cortical activations (i.e. increase in the O2Hb and decrease in HHb) than the systemic changes. Physiological parameters (heart rate, breathing rate and skin conductance) were also monitored.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a non-invasive optical technique able to measure hemodynamic response in the brain cortex. Among the different approaches the fNIRS can be based on, the time resolved one allows a straightforward relationship between the photon detection time and its path within the medium, improving the discrimination of the information content relative to the different layers the tissues are composed of. Thus absorption and scattering properties of the probed tissue can be estimated, and from them the oxy- and deoxy-hemoglobin concentration. However, an open issue in the optical imaging studies is still the accuracy in separating the superficial hemodynamic changes from those happening in deeper regions of the head and more likely involving the cerebral cortex. In fact a crucial point is the precise estimate of the time dependent pathlength spent by photons within the perturbed medium. A novel method for the calculus of the absorption properties in time domain fNIRS, based on a refined computation of photon pathlength in multilayered media, is proposed. The method takes into account the non-ideality of the measurement system (its instrument response function) and the heterogeneous structure of the head. The better accuracy in computing the optical pathlength can improve the NIRS data analysis, especially for the deeper layer. Simulations and preliminary analysis on in vivo data have been performed to validate the method and are here presented.
KEYWORDS: Brain, Absorption, Functional near infrared spectroscopy, Hemodynamics, Sensors, Tissues, Tissue optics, In vivo imaging, Signal to noise ratio, Control systems
A multichannel (16 sources and 8 detectors) time-domain fNIRS medical device is presented. The system was extensively characterized on tissue phantoms. Preliminary in vivo measurements on muscle and brain cortex are reported to test the ability of the system to noninvasively measure tissue hemodynamics.
Working memory (WM) is fundamental for a number of cognitive processes, such as comprehension, reasoning and learning. WM allows the short-term maintenance and manipulation of the information selected by attentional processes. The goal of this study was to examine by time-resolved fNIRS neural correlates of the verbal and visual WM during forward and backward digit span (DF and DB, respectively) tasks, and symbol span (SS) task. A neural dissociation was hypothesised between the maintenance and manipulation processes. In particular, a dorsolateral/ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC/VLPFC) recruitment was expected during the DB task, whilst a lateralised involvement of Brodmann Area (BA) 10 was expected during the execution of the DF task. Thirteen subjects were monitored by a multi-channel, dual-wavelength (690 and 829 nm) time-resolved fNIRS system during 3 minutes long DF and DB tasks and 4 minutes long SS task. The participants’ mean memory span was calculated for each task: DF: 6.46±1.05 digits; DB: 5.62±1.26 digits; SS: 4.69±1.32 symbols. No correlation was found between the span level and the heart rate data (measured by pulse oximeter). As expected, DB elicited a broad activated area, in the bilateral VLPFC and the right DLPFC, whereas a more localised activation was observed over the right hemisphere during either DF (BA 10) or SS (BA 10 and 44). The robust involvement of the DLPFC during DB, compared to DF, is compatible with previous findings and with the key role of the central executive subserving in manipulating processes.
We developed a compact dual-wavelength dual-channel system for time-resolved diffuse NIR spectroscopy that uses a
novel approach based on space-multiplexing (instead of time-multiplexing) of wavelengths, to increase the signal-tonoise
ratio and avoid cross-talk.
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