Dr. Ricardo Correia Profile

Dr. Ricardo Correia

at Univ of Nottingham

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Publications (3)

SPIE Journal Paper | 29 August 2024 Open Access

Exploring the bias: how skin color influences oxygen saturation readings via Monte Carlo simulations

Suvvi Narayanaswamy, Chong Liu, Ricardo Correia, Barrie Hayes-Gill, Stephen Morgan

JBO, Vol. 29, Issue S3, S33308, (August 2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.10.1117/1.JBO.29.S3.S33308

KEYWORDS: Skin, Tissues, Reflection, Oxygen, Signal attenuation, Simulations, Monte Carlo methods, Photons, Signal to noise ratio, Light scattering

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SignificanceOur goal is to understand the root cause of reported oxygen saturation (SpO2) overestimation in heavily pigmented skin types to devise solutions toward enabling equity in pulse oximeter designs.AimWe aim to gain theoretical insights into the effect of skin tone on SpO2-R curves using a three-dimensional, four-layer tissue model representing a finger.ApproachA finger tissue model, comprising the epidermis, dermis, two arteries, and a bone, was developed using a Monte Carlo-based approach in the MCmatlab software. Two skin tones—light and dark—were simulated by adjusting the absorption and scattering properties within the epidermal layer. Following this, SpO2-R curves were generated in various tissue configurations, including transmission and reflection modes using red and infrared wavelengths. In addition, the influence of source–detector (SD) separation distances on both light and dark skin tissue models was studied.ResultsIn transmission mode, SpO2-R curves did not deviate with changes in skin tones because both pulsatile and non-pulsatile terms experienced equal attenuation at red and infrared wavelengths. However, in reflection mode, measurable variations in SpO2-R curves were evident. This was due to differential attenuation of the red components, which resulted in a lower perfusion index at the red wavelength in darker skin. As the SD separation increased, the effect of skin tone on SpO2-R curves in reflection mode became less pronounced, with the largest SD separation exhibiting effects similar to those observed in transmission mode.ConclusionsMonte Carlo simulations have demonstrated that different light pathlengths within the tissue contribute to the overestimation of SpO2 in people with darker skin in reflection mode pulse oximetry. Increasing the SD separation may mitigate the effect of skin tone on SpO2 readings. These trends were not observed in transmission mode; however, further planned research using more complex models of the tissue is essential.

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Proceedings Article | 12 March 2024 Presentation + Paper

Ambulatory fibre Bragg grating interrogator with applications in blood pressure monitoring

Itzel Avila-Castro, Yi Hsuan Chen, Barrie Hayes-Gill, Stephen Morgan, Serhiy Korposh, David Gomez, Ricardo Correia

Proceedings Volume 12838, 128380B (2024) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3005056

KEYWORDS: Sensors, Fiber Bragg gratings, Blood pressure, Optical fibers, Arteries, Heart, Signal detection

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Proceedings Article | 23 May 2023 Paper

Cantilever optical fibre sensor for compression therapy applications

James Ell, James Bradbury, Ricardo Correia, Serhiy Korposh, Barrie Hayes-Gill, Stephen Morgan

Proceedings Volume 12643, 1264308 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2678120

KEYWORDS: Sensors, Fiber Bragg gratings, Optical fibers, Calibration, Medicine, Industrial applications, Biomedical applications, Transducers, Polymers

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