We recently proposed a resonator structure to increase the quantum efficiency (QE) of a quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP). In this detector systematic parameter study, we have selected two active layer thicknesses, three detector sizes, and three doping levels to investigate the Resonator-QWIP characteristics and the EM modeling in a wide range of detector parameters. To achieve the expected performances, the detector geometry must be produced in precise specification. In particular, the height of the diffractive elements (DE) and the thickness of the active resonator must be uniformly and accurately realized to within 0.05 μm accuracy and the substrates of the detectors have to be removed totally to prevent the escape of unabsorbed light in the detectors. To attain these specifications, two optimized inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching processes are developed to fabricate a number of test detectors. Due to submicron detector feature sizes and overlay tolerance, we use an ASML stepper instead of a contact mask aligner to pattern wafers. The highest QE we found in this study is 64% obtained from a less optimized 30 μm pitch detector with 1.0×1018 cm-3 doping. In generally, the experimental result agrees with the prediction from electromagnetic (EM) modeling, and the R-QWIPs are able to maintain a relatively constant QE as the pixel size shrinks to 6 μm. The present 6 μm pitch R-QWIP FPA can potentially achieve 20 mK NETD at F/1.2 and 12 ms integration time.
Small pixel, high density arrays have many advantages in terms of SWaP-C and detection range. However, it is a challenge for quantum well infrared photodetectors to make into small pixels. The typical grating on the detector needs a large area to be effective. Recently, we introduced the resonator-QWIP for light coupling. This structure utilizes the active absorption volume as a resonator to trap the incident light until it is absorbed. To determine the size limit of this approach, we optimized the detector at different pixel pitches p (= 30, 12, 6, 3 and 2 microns) using 3-dimensional electromagnetic modeling. We found that their quantum efficiency can be kept relatively constant, and an especially large QE of ~80% appears at p = 3 microns at the wavelength of 9.0 microns for an absorption coefficient of 0.2/micron, indicating a great potential for pixel miniaturization. We conducted experiments on test detectors with p = 30, 12 and 6 microns. The set of wafers have two different active layer thicknesses and three different doping densities to create different detector characteristics. The experimental result is in good agreement with the prediction. We are producing 12-μm and 6-μm pitch detector arrays to confirm these test results. The FPAs will have peak wavelengths at either 8.0 or 9.8 microns, all hybridized to 1280x1024, 12-μm pitch ROICs.
The infrared absorption of SF6 gas is narrowband and peaks at 10.6 μm. This narrowband absorption posts a stringent requirement on the corresponding sensors as they need to collect enough signal from this limited spectral bandwidth to maintain a high sensitivity. Resonator-quantum well infrared photodetectors (R-QWIPs) are the next generation of QWIP detectors that use resonances to increase the quantum efficiency for more efficient signal collection. Since the resonant approach is applicable to narrowband as well as broadband, it is particularly suitable for this application. We designed and fabricated R-QWIPs for SF6 gas detection. To achieve the expected performance, the detector geometry must be produced according to precise specifications. In particular, the height of the diffractive elements and the thickness of the active resonator must be uniform, and accurately realized to within 0.05 μm. Additionally, the substrates of the detectors must be completely removed to prevent the escape of unabsorbed light in the detectors. To achieve these specifications, two optimized inductively coupled plasma etching processes were developed. Due to submicron detector feature sizes and overlay tolerance, we used an advanced semiconductor material lithography stepper instead of a contact mask aligner to pattern wafers. Using these etching techniques and tool, we have fabricated focal plane arrays with 30-μm pixel pitch and 320×256 format. The initial test revealed promising results.
Resonator-Quantum Well Infrared Photo detectors (R-QWIPs) are the next generation of QWIP detectors that use resonances to increase the quantum efficiency (QE). Recently, we are exploring R-QWIPs for broadband long wavelength applications. To achieve the expected performance, two optimized inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching processes (selective and non-selective) are developed. Our selective ICP etching process has a nearly infinite selectivity of etching GaAs over Ga1-xAlxAs. By using the etching processes, two format (1Kx1K and 40x40) detectors with 25 μm pixel pitch were fabricated successfully. In despite of a moderate doping of 0.5 × 1018 cm-3 and a thin active layer thickness of 0.6 or 1.3 μm, we achieved a quantum efficiency 35% and 37% for 8 quantum wells and 19 quantum wells respectively. The temperature at which photocurrent equals dark current is about 66 K under F/2 optics for a cutoff wavelength up to 11 μm. The NEΔT of the FPAs is estimated to be 22 mK at 2 ms integration time and 60 K operating temperature. This good result thus exemplifies the advantages of R-QWIP.
The infrared absorption of SF6 gas is of narrowband and peaks at 10.6μm. This narrow band absorption posts a stringent requirement on the corresponding sensors as they need to collect enough signal from this limited spectral range to maintain a high sensitivity. Resonator-Quantum Well Infrared Photo detectors (R-QWIPs) are the next generation of QWIP detectors that use resonances to increase the quantum efficiency (QE) for more efficient signal collection. Since the resonant approach is applicable to narrowband as well as broadband, it is particularly suitable for this application. We designed and fabricated R-QWIPs for SF6 gas detection. To achieve the expected performance, the detector geometry must be produced according to precise specifications. In particular, the height of the diffractive elements (DE) and the thickness of the active resonator must be uniform, and accurately realized to within 0.05 μm. additionally, the substrates of the detectors must be removed totally to prevent the escape of unabsorbed light in the detectors. To achieve these specifications, two optimized inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching processes are developed. Due to submicron detector feature sizes and overlay tolerance, we use an ASML stepper instead of a contact mask aligner to pattern wafers. Using these etching techniques and tool, we have fabricated FPAs with 30 μm pixel pitch and 320x256 format. The initial test results showed promising results.
Photochromic cross-link polymers were developed using patented ultraviolet (UV) photoinitiator and commercial photochromic dyes. The photochromic dyes have been characterized by measuring absorbance before and after UV activation using UV-visible (Vis) spectrometry with varying activation intensities and wavelengths. Photochromic cross-link polymers were characterized by a dynamic xenon and UV light activation and fading system. The curing processes on cloth were established and tested to obtain effective photochromic responses. Both PulseForge photonic curing and PulseForge plus heat surface curing processes had much better photochromic responses (18% to 19%, 16% to 25%, respectively) than the xenon lamp treatment (8%). The newly developed photochromic cross-link polymer showed remarkable coloration contrasts and fast and comparable coloration and fading rates. Those intelligent, controlled color changing and sensing capabilities will be used on flexible and “drapeable” surfaces, which will incorporate ultra-low power sensors, sensor indicators, and identifiers.
We are developing resonator-QWIPs for long wavelength applications. Detector pixels with 25 μm pitch were
hybridized to fanout circuits for radiometric measurements. With a moderate doping of 0.5 x 1018 cm-3, we achieved a
quantum efficiency of 37% and conversion efficiency of 15% in a 1.3 μm-thick active material and 35% QE and 21%
CE in a 0.6 μm-thick active material. Both detectors are cutoff at 10.5 μm with a 2 μm bandwidth. The temperature at
which photocurrent equals dark current is about 65 K under F/2 optics. The thicker detector shows a large QE polarity
asymmetry due to nonlinear potential drop in the QWIP material layers.
Recently, we have developed a detector structure known as the resonator quantum-well infrared photodetector or R-QWIP. With this structure, we demonstrated quantum efficiency as high as 70% in single detectors and 30% to 40% in focal plane arrays (FPAs) with a 9-μm cutoff. We designed a broadband, 10-μm cutoff R-QWIP FPA using a more accurate refractive index. To achieve the theoretical prediction, the substrates of the detectors have to be removed completely to prevent the escape of unabsorbed light out of the detectors. The height of the diffractive elements (DE) and the thickness of the active resonator must also be uniformly produced within a 0.05-μm accuracy. To achieve these specifications, two optimized inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching processes are developed. Using these etching techniques, a number of single detectors were fabricated to verify the analysis before FPA production. In general, test data support the theoretical predictions.
Recently, we have developed a new detector structure, which is known as the resonator- QWIP or R-QWIP. With the new structure, we demonstrated quantum efficiency (QE) as high as 70% in single detectors and 30 - 40% in focal plane arrays (FPAs) with 9 μm cutoff. In this study, we designed a broadband, 10 μm cutoff R-QWIP FPA using a more accurate refractive index. To achieve the theoretical prediction, the substrates of the detectors have to be removed completely to prevent the escape of unabsorbed light out of the detectors. The height of the diffractive elements (DE) and the thickness of the active resonator must also be uniformly produced within 0.05 μm accuracy. To achieve these specifications, two optimized inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching processes are developed. Using these etching techniques, a number of single detectors were fabricated to verify the analysis before FPA production. In general, test data support the theoretical predictions.
Applications in ferroelectric random access memory and superparaelectric devices require the fabrication of ferroelectric capacitors at the nanoscale that exhibit extremely small leakage currents. To systematically study the material-size dependence of ferroelectric varactor performance, arrays of parallel-plate structures have been fabricated with nanoscale dielectric diameters. Electron beam lithography and inductively coupled plasma dry etching have been used to fabricate arrays of ferroelectric varactors using top electrodes as a self-aligned etch mask. Parallel-plate test structures using RF-sputtered Ba0.6Sr0.4TiO3 thin-films were used to optimize the fabrication process. Varactors with diameters down to 20 nm were successfully fabricated. Current-voltage (I-V) characteristics were measured to evaluate the significance of etch-damage and fabrication quality by ensuring low leakage currents through the structures.
The electronic transport properties of 1, 3, 5-tri(1-phenyl-1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)phenyl (TPBI) electron transporting layers (ETLs) have been investigated as a function of cesium carbonate (Cs2CO3) doping for organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). The current density-voltage and light emission characteristics were measured as a function of the Cs2CO3-doped ETL thickness. Cs2CO3-doped TPBI decreased OLED operating voltage by 26% and increased device luminance by 17% in a wide concentration range (3.5% to 10.5%) compared to undoped devices. The effects of 7% Cs2CO3-doped ETL thickness indicated that the operating voltage continuously decreased to 37% when the ETL thickness increased to 600 Å and luminance output continued to increase to 21% at ETL thickness 525 Å. The blue OLED can be optimized by adjusting the thicknesses of Cs2CO3-doped TPBI ETL to balance the electron and hole injection.
Mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe) processing must be performed at a low temperature in order to reduce Hg depletion. To meet demand, low-temperature plasma enhanced atomic layer deposition (PE-ALD) is an emerging deposition technology for highly conformal thin films. We comparatively studied the effectiveness of low-temperature PE-ALD by measuring the ALD film roughness, thickness, and dielectric values. Conformal deposition was investigated through scanning electron microscopy images of the Al 2 O 3 film deposited onto high aspect ratio features dry-etched into HgCdTe. PE-ALD demonstrated conformal coatings of trenches, pillars and holes in advanced HgCdTe infrared sensor architectures.
HgCdTe passivation process must be performed at low temperature in order to reduce Hg depletion. Low temperature
plasma enhanced atomic layer deposition (PE-ALD) is an emerging deposition technology for thin highly conformal
films to meet the demand. Room temperature PE-ALD Al2O3 film's passivation on HgCdTe has been studied. Conformal
film was investigated through SEM images of the Al2O3 film deposited onto high aspect ratio features dry etched into
HgCdTe. Minority carrier lifetime was measured and compared by photoconductive decay transients of HgCdTe before
and after deposition. Room temperature ALD Al2O3 film increased the minority carrier lifetime of HgCdTe.
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