The tracking of winds and atmospheric features has many applications, from predicting and analyzing weather patterns in the upper and lower atmosphere to monitoring air movement from pig and chicken farms. Doppler LIDAR systems exist to quantify the underlying wind speeds, but cost of these systems can sometimes be relatively high, and processing limitations exist. The alternative is using an incoherent LIDAR system to analyze aerosol backscatter. Improving the detection and analysis of wind information from aerosol backscatter LIDAR systems will allow for the adoption of these relatively low cost instruments in environments where the size, complexity, and cost of other options are prohibitive. Using data from a simple aerosol backscatter LIDAR system, we attempt to extend the processing capabilities by calculating wind vectors through image correlation techniques to improve the detection of wind features.
KEYWORDS: LIDAR, Aerosols, Backscatter, Analog electronics, Signal to noise ratio, Linear filtering, Sensors, Motion estimation, Digital filtering, Receivers
The performance of two direct-detection atmospheric lidar systems with very different methods of generating and detecting laser radiation is compared as the result of a field experiment held in March 2015, in Chico, California. During the noncontinuous, 11-day test period, in which the systems operated side by side, the micropulse lidar was operated at its maximum pulse repetition frequency (15 kHz) and integrated elastic backscatter over the interpulse period of the analog direct-detection lidar (0.1 s). Operation at the high pulse repetition frequency resulted in second-trip echoes that contaminated portions of the data. The performance of the micropulse lidar varied with background brightness—as expected with a photon-counting receiver—yet showed equal or larger backscatter intensity signal-to-noise ratio throughout the experiment. Examples of wind fields and time series of wind vectors from both systems during the Chico experiment are presented. In addition, scans over the ocean that were collected by the micropulse lidar during a subsequent deployment on the northern California coast are presented. We conclude by reviewing the advantages and disadvantages of each system and make some suggestions to improve the design and performance of future systems.
Although operating at the same near-infrared 1.5- m wavelength, the Raman-shifted Eye-safe Aerosol Lidar (REAL) and the Scanning Aerosol Micro-Pulse Lidar-Eye-safe (SAMPLE) are very different in how they generate and detect laser radiation. We present results from an experiment where the REAL and the SAMPLE were operated side-by-side in Chico, California, in March of 2015. During the non-continuous, eleven day test period, the SAMPLE instrument was operated at maximum pulse repetition frequency (15 kHz) and integrated over the interpulse period of the REAL (0.1 s). Operation at the high pulse repetition frequency resulted in second trip echoes which contaminated portions of the data. The performance of the SAMPLE instrument varied with background brightness--as expected with a photon counting receiver|--yet showed equal or larger backscatter intensity signal to noise ratio throughout the intercomparison experiment. We show that a modest low-pass filter or smooth applied to the REAL raw waveforms (that have 5x higher range resolution) results in significant increases in raw signal-to-noise ratio and image signal-to-noise ratio--a measure of coherent aerosol feature content in the images resulting from the scans. Examples of wind fields and time series of wind estimates from both systems are presented. We conclude by reviewing the advantages and disadvantages of each system and sketch a plan for future research and development activities to optimize the design of future systems.
An overview of recent research results on the performance of two motion estimation algorithms used to deduce two-component horizontal wind fields from ground-based scanning elastic backscatter lidar is presented. One motion estimation algorithm is a traditional cross-correlation method optimized for atmospheric lidar data. The second algorithm is a recently-developed wavelet-based optical flow. An intercomparison of experimental results with measurements from an independent Doppler lidar over an agricultural area in Chico, California, during daytime convective conditions in 2013-14 are presented. Finally, early results from application of the algorithms to data collected over the ocean from a compact and portable aerosol lidar that was deployed on the northern California coast in March of 2015 are presented.
We report on the implementation and testing of a new wavelet-based motion estimation algorithm to estimate horizontal vector wind fields in real-time from horizontally-scanning elastic backscatter lidar data, and new experimental results from field work conducted in Chico, California, during the summer of 2013. We also highlight some limitations of a traditional cross-correlation method and compare the results of the wavelet-based method with those from the cross-correlation method and wind measurements from a Doppler lidar.
Improvements to the original NCAR/NSF Raman-shifted Eye-safe Aerosol Lidar (REAL) made between 2008 and 2013 are described. They are aimed mainly at optimizing and stabilizing the performance of the system for long-term, unattended, network-controlled, remote monitoring of the horizontal vector wind field and boundary layer height, and observing atmospheric boundary layer phenomena such as fine-scale waves and density current fronts. In addition, we have improved the polarization purity of the transmitted laser radiation and studied in the laboratory the effect of the beam-steering unit mirrors on the transmitted polarization as part of a longer-term effort to make absolute polarization measurements of aerosols and clouds.
This paper and corresponding seminar given on 20 September 2010 at the 16th International School for Quantum
Electronics in Nesebar, Bulgaria, will describe the key hardware aspects of the Raman-shifted Eye-safe Aerosol
Lidar (REAL) and recent advances in extracting two-component wind vector fields from the images it produces.
The REAL is an eye-safe, ground-based, scanning, elastic aerosol backscatter lidar operating at 1.54 microns
wavelength. Operation at this wavelength offers several advantages compared to other laser wavelengths including:
(1) maximum eye-safety, (2) invisible beam, (3) superior performance photodetectors compared with those
used at longer wavelengths, (4) low atmospheric molecular scattering when compared with operation at shorter
wavelengths, (5) good aerosol backscattering, (6) atmospheric transparency, and (7) availability of optical and
photonic components used in the modern telecommunations industry. A key issue for creating a high-performance
direct-detection lidar at 1.5 microns is the use of InGaAs avalanche photodetectors that have active areas of at
most 200 microns in diameter. The small active area imposes a maximum limitation on the field-of-view of the
receiver (about 0.54 mrad full-angle for REAL). As a result, a key requirement is a transmitter that can produce
a pulsed (>10 Hz) beam with low divergence (<0.25 mrad full-angle), high pulse-energy (>150 mJ), and short
pulse-duration (<10 ns). The REAL achieves this by use of a commercially-available flashlamp-pumped Nd:YAG
laser and a custom high-pressure methane gas cell for wavelength shifting via stimulated Raman scattering. The
atmospheric aerosol features in the images that REAL produces can be tracked to infer horizontal wind vectors.
The method of tracking macroscopic aerosol features has an advantage over Doppler lidars in that two components
of motion can be sensed. (Doppler lidars can sense only the radial component of flow.) Two-component
velocity estimation is done by computing two-dimensional cross-correlation functions (CCFs) and noting the
displacement of the peak of the CCF with respect to the origin. Motion vectors derived from this method are
compared with coincident sonic anemometer measurements at 1.6 km range. Preliminary results indicate the
method performs best when the atmosphere is stable with light winds.
A multi-dimensional scanning lidar has been developed for tracking and monitoring aerosol plumes in urban
settings. The reliability of the system has been demonstrated and plans for additional units are in place to
create a unique scanning lidar network. The paper discusses the current capabilities of the instrument and
research underway to extract more information, such as quantitative aerosol properties, from the network.
The ability to detect relative changes in backscatter polarization from a scanning high-pulse-energy lidar system at 1.54-µm wavelength is demonstrated. The new capability was tested during the dissemination of various biological aerosol simulants and other particulate emissions at the U.S. Army's Dugway Proving Ground. Results demonstrate that the lidar is sensitive to different types of aerosols, and departures from the atmospheric background depolarization ratio are consistent with the limited amount of information available on the degree of particle sphericity. We conclude that the polarization-sensitive coatings of the beam-steering unit mirrors are presently the largest source of error and that this error is minimized when scanning with a near-zero elevation angle. This is an encouraging result for aerosol source surveillance applications, where the depolarization information may be useful in determining the aerosol generation mechanism or provide an additional scalar variable for use in delineating the plume from the background.
An InGaAsSb/AlGaAsSb phototransistor has been validated for lidar atmospheric remote sensing. The validation was performed using the Raman-shifted eye-safe aerosol lidar (REAL) at the National Center for Atmospheric Research. Although the device is optimized for detection around the 2-µm wavelength, the validation was performed at 1.543 µm, where mature commercial detectors are available. Simultaneous measurement of the atmospheric backscatter signals using the custom-built phototransistor and commercial InGaAs avalanche photodiode indicated good agreement between both devices. The validation included detecting 11-km-range hard targets, 5-km atmospheric structure consisting of cirrus clouds, and a near-field boundary layer. Far-field low intensity and spatially narrow atmospheric features were also detectable with the new phototransistor. Preliminary results related to systematic effects are discussed in the first attempt of incorporating a phototransistor in a lidar system.
Effective monitoring of the atmosphere for potentially hazardous aerosol plumes in urban areas requires a lidar that produces high signal-to-noise backscatter returns, fine spatial resolution, rapid updates, eye-safety at all ranges, and long-range operation. A scanning elastic backscatter lidar with high pulse energy that meets these requirements was recently developed at NCAR. The latest upgrades to the lidar system include the use of a new Raman cell for wavelength conversion and a two-channel receiver for backscatter depolarization ratio measurements. Highlights from recent field tests of the system are presented and plans to improve the prototype, as well as construct an unattended and continuously operating version, are discussed.
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