We report progress in the study of thick single-sided charge-sharing cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) strip detector
modules designed to perform spectroscopy and 3-D imaging of gamma-rays. We report laboratory measurements
including spectroscopy, efficiency and 3-D imaging capability of prototype detectors (15 × 15 × 7.5mm3) with
11×11 unit cells. We also report on Monte Carlo simulations (GEANT4 v7.1) to investigate the effect of multihits
on detector performance in both spectroscopy and imaging. We compare simulation results with data obtained
from laboratory measurements and discuss the implications for future strip detector designs.
We report progress in the study of a thick CZT strip detector module designed to perform gamma-ray spectroscopy and 3-D imaging. We report preliminary performance measurements of 7.5 mm thick single-sided charge-sharing strip detector prototype devices. This design features both row and column contacts on the anode surface. This electron-only approach addresses problems associated with poor hole transport in CZT that limit the thickness and energy range of double-sided strip detectors. This work includes laboratory and simulation studies aimed at developing compact, efficient, detector modules for 0.05 to 1 MeV gamma measurements while minimizing the number and complexity of the electronic readout channels. This is particularly important in space-based coded aperture and Compton telescope instruments that require large area, large volume detector arrays. Such arrays will be required for the NASA Black Hole Finder Probe (BHFP)and Advanced Compton Telescope (ACT). This new design requires an anode pattern with contacts whose dimensions and spacing are roughly the size of the ionization charge cloud. The first prototype devices have 125 μm anode contacts on 225 μm pitch. Our results demonstrate the principle of operation but suggest that even finer anode contact feature sizes will be necessary to achieve the desired performance.
The Energetic X-ray Survey Telesccope (EXIST) is under study for the propsed Black Hole Finder Probe, one of the three Einstein Probe missions in NASA's proposed Beyond Einstein Program. EXIST would have the capability to survey the full sky at 5-600 keV and enable black holes to be surveyed and studied on all scales. In particular, GRB's will be located at sensitivities and bandwidths much greater than with previous missions and likely yield constraints on the massive population III black holes. The measurements of hard X-ray polarization, thus far relatively unexplored, could also provide important clues about the GRB progenitor. In this paper, we report on the preliminary estimates to the sensitivity to GRB polarization with EXIST.
This paper discusses the latest progress in the development of GRAPE (Gamma-Ray Polarimeter Experiment), a hard X-ray Compton Polarimeter. The purpose of GRAPE is to measure the polarization of hard X-rays in the 50-300 keV energy range. We are particularly interested in X-rays that are emitted from solar flares and gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Accurately measuring the polarization of the emitted radiation from these sources will lead, to a better understating of both the emission mechanisms and source geometries. The GRAPE design consists of an array of plastic scintillators surrounding a central high-Z crystal scintillator. We can monitor individual Compton scatters that occur in the plastics and determine whether the photon is photo absorbed by the high-Z crystal or not. A Compton scattered photon that is immediately photo absorbed by the high-Z crystal constitutes a valid event. These valid events provide us with the interaction locations of each incident photon and ultimately produces a modulation pattern for the Compton scattering of the polarized radiation. Comparing with Monte Carlo simulations of a 100% polarized beam, the level of polarization of the measured beam can then be determined. The complete array is mounted on a flat-panel multi-anode photomultiplier tube (MAPMT) that can measure the deposited energies resulting from the photon interactions. The design of the detector allows for a large field-of-view, at the same time offering the ability to be close-packed with multiple modules in order to reduce deadspace. We plan to present in this paper the latest laboratory results obtained from GRAPE using partially polarized radiation sources.
We report our in-depth study of Cd-Zn-Te (CZT) crystals to determine an optimum pixel and guard band configuration for Hard X-ray imaging and spectroscopy. We tested 20x20x5mm crystals with 8x8 pixels on a 2.46mm pitch. We have studied different types of cathode / anode contacts and different pixel pad sizes. We present the measurements of leakage current as well as spectral response for each pixel. Our I-V measurement setup is custom designed to allow automated measurements of the I-V curves sequentially for all 64 pixels, whereas the radiation properties measurement setup allows for interchangeable crystals with the same XAIM3.2 ASIC readout from IDEAS. We have tested multiple crystals of each type, and each crystal in different positions to measure the variation between individual crystals and variation among the ASIC channels. We also compare the same crystals with and without a grounded guard band deposited on the crystal side walls vs. a floating guard band and compare results to simulations. This study was carried out to find the optimum CZT crystal configuration for prototype detectors for the proposed Black-Hole Finder mission, EXIST.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Crystals, Imaging systems, X-rays, Telescopes, Monte Carlo methods, Hard x-rays, X-ray telescopes, Signal to noise ratio, Electronics
The proposed black-hole finder mission EXIST will consist of multiple wide-field hard X-ray coded-aperture telescopes. The high science goals set for the mission require innovations in telescope design. In particular, wide energy band coverage and fine angular resolution require relatively thick coded masks and thick detectors compared to their pixel size, which may introduce mask self-collimation and depth-induced image blurring with conventional design approaches. Previously we proposed relatively simple solutions to these potential problems: radial hole for mask selfcollimation and cathode depth sensing detector for image blurring. We have now performed laboratory experiments to explore the potential of these two techniques. The experimental results show that the radial hole mask greatly alleviates mask self-collimation and a ~1 mm resolution depth-sensitive detector scheme can be relatively easily achieved for the large scale required for EXIST.
We report progress in the study of thick CZT strip detectors for 3-d imaging and spectroscopy and discuss two approaches to device design. We present the spectroscopic, imaging, detection efficiency and response uniformity performance of prototype devices. Unlike double-sided strip detectors, these devices feature both row and column contacts implemented on the anode surface. This electron-only approach circumvents problems associated with poor hole transport in CZT that normally limit the thickness and energy range of double-sided strip detectors. These devices can achieve similar performance to pixel detectors. The work includes laboratory and simulation studies aimed at developing compact, efficient, detector modules for 0.05 to 1 MeV gamma radiation measurements. The low channel count strip detector approach can significantly reduce the complexity and power requirements of the readout electronics. This is particularly important in space-based coded aperture or Compton telescope instruments requiring large area, large volume detector arrays. Such arrays will be required for NASA's Black Hole Finder Probe (BHFP) and Advanced Compton Telescope (ACT).
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Image resolution, Spatial resolution, Electrodes, Electrons, Astronomy, X-ray telescopes, Signal detection, X-rays, Signal to noise ratio
Determination of the photon interaction depth offers numerous advantages for an astronomical hard X-ray telescope. The interaction depth is typically derived from two signals: anode and cathode, or collecting and non-collecting electrodes. We present some preliminary results from our depth sensing detectors using only the anode pixel signals. By examining several anode pixel signals simultaneously, we find that we can estimate the interaction depth, and get sub-pixel 2-D position resolution. We discuss our findings and the requirements for future ASIC development.
Measuring the depth of interaction in thick Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride (CZT) detectors allows improved imaging and spectroscopy for hard X-ray imaging above 100 keV. The Energetic X-ray Imaging Survey Telescope (EXIST) will employ relatively thick (5 - 10 mm) CZT detectors, which are required to perform the broad energy-band sky survey. Interaction depth information is needed to correct events to the detector "focal plane" for correct imaging and can be used to improve the energy resolution of the detector at high energies by allowing event-based corrections for incomplete charge collection. Background rejection is also improved by allowing low energy events from the rear and sides of the detector to be rejected. We present experimental results of intereaction depth sensing in a 5 mm thick pixellated Au-contact IMARAD CZT detector. The depth sensing was done by making simultaneous measurements of cathode and anode signals, where the interaction depth at a given energy is proportional to the ratio of cathode/anode signals. We demonstrate how a simple empirical formula describing the event distributions in the cathode/anode signal space can dramatically improve the energy resolution. We also estimate the energy and depth resolution of the detector as a function of the energy and the interaction depth. We also show a depth-sensing prototype system currently under development for EXIST in which cathode signals from 8, 16 or 32 crystals can be read-out by a small multi-channel ASIC board that is vertically edge-mounted on the cathode electrode along every second CZT crystal boundary. This allows CZT crystals to be tiled contiguously with minimum impact on throughput of incoming photons. The robust packaging is crucial in EXIST, which will employ very large area imaging CZT detector arrays.
We report detector characteristics and background measurements from two prototype imaging CdZnTe (CZT) detectors flown on a scientific balloon payload in May 2001. The detectors are both platinum-contact 10 mm × 10 mm × 5 mm CZT crystals, each with a 4 × 4 array of pixels tiling the anode. One is made from IMARAD horizontal Bridgman CZT, the other from eV Products high-pressure Bridgman CZT. Both detectors were mounted side-by-side in a flip-chip configuration and read out by a 32-channel IDE VA/TA ASIC preamp/shaper. We enclosed the detectors in the same 40o field-of-view collimator used in our previously-reported September 2000 flight. I-V curves for the detectors are diode-like, and we find that the platinum contacts adhere significantly better to the CZT surfaces than gold to previosu detectors. The detectors and instrumentation performed well in a 20-hour balloon flight on 23/24 May 2001. Although we discovered a significant instrumental background component in flight, it was possible to measure and subtract this component from the spectra. The resulting IMARAD detector background spectrum reaches ~5×10-3 counts cm-2s-1keV-1 at 100 keV and has a power-law index of ~2 at hgih energies. The eV Products detector has a similar spectrum, although there is more uncertainty in the enregy scale because of calibration complications.
We report on the design and construction of a tiled Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) detector array, suitable for use as an astronomical coded aperture imager. Four detector modules, each with 4 x 4 x 0.5 cm of CZT, readout by two 128 channel XA type ASICs, have been built and incorporated into a detector focal plane array. A passive shield/collimator surrounded by plastic scintillator encloses the detector on five sides and provides a 40 degree field of view. In this paper, we present our performance goals and some preliminary calibration results.
We present results from the flight of two prototype CZT detectors on a scientific balloon payload in September 2000. The first detector, referred to as CZT1, consisted of a 10 mm x 10 mm x 2 mm CZT crystal with a single gold planar electrode readout. This detector was shielded by a combination of a passive collimator in the front, giving a 40 degree field of view and surrounded by plastic scintillator, and a thick BGO crystal in the rear. The second detector, CZT2, comprised two 10 mm x 10 mm x 5 mm CZT crystals, one made of eV Products high pressure Bridgman material and the other of IMARAD horizontal Bridgman material, each fashioned with a 4 x 4 array of gold pixels on a 2.5 mm pitch. The pixellated detectors were flip-chip-mounted side by side and read out by a 32-channel ASIC. This detector was also shielded by a passive/plastic collimator in the front, but used only additional passive/plastic shielding in the rear. Both experiments were flown from Ft. Sumner, NM on September 19, 2000 on a 24 hour balloon flight. Both instruments performed well. CZT1 recorded a non-vetoed background level at 100 keV of approximately 1 x 10-3 cm-2s-1keV-1. Raising the BGO threshold from 50 keV to approximately 1 MeV produced only an 18% increase in this level. CZT2 recorded a background at 100 keV of approximately 4 times 10-3 cts cm-2s-1keV-1 in the eV Products detector and approximately 6 x 10-3 cts cm-2s-1keV-1 in the IMARAD detector, a difference possibly due to our internal background subtracting procedure. Both CZT1 and CZT2 spectra were in basic agreement with Monte Carlo simulations, though both recorded systematically higher count rates at high energy than predicted. No lines were observed, indicating that neutron capture reactions, at least those producing decay lines at a few 100 keV, are not significant components of the CZT background. Comparison of the CZT1 and CZT2 spectra indicates that passive/plastic shielding may provide adequately low background levels for many applications.
We report on the construction and laboratory testing of pixellated CZT detectors mounted in a flip-chip, tiled fashion and read out by an ASIC, as required for proposed hard X-ray astronomy missions. Two 10 mm X 10 mm X 5 mm detectors were fabricated, one out of standard eV Products high-pressure Bridgman CZT and one out of IMARAD horizontal Bridgman CZT. Each was fashioned with a 4 X 4 array of gold pixels on 2.5 mm pitch with a surrounding guard ring. The detectors were mounted side by side on a carrier card, such that the pixel pitch was preserved, and read out by a 32-channel VA-TA ASIC from IDE AS Corp. controlled by a PC/104 single-board computer. A passive shield/collimator surrounded by plastic scintillator encloses the detectors on five sides and provides an approximately 40 degree field of view. Thus this experiment tests key techniques required for future hard X-ray survey instruments. The experiment was taken to Ft. Sumner, NM in May 2000 in preparation for a scientific balloon flight aboard the joint Harvard-MSFC EXITE2/HERO payload. Although we did not receive a flight opportunity, and are currently scheduled to fly in September 2000, we present our calibration data in the flight configuration together with data analysis techniques and simulations of the expected flight background spectrum.
We present initial results from our evaluation of a gold- contacted pixellated detector using cadmium zinc telluride substrate produced by IMARAD Imaging Systems. The Horizontal Bridgman (HB) grown crystals from IMARAD have been shown to produce high resolution photopeaks, but they are also seen to have large leakage current. Our previous tests with IMARAD CZT showed that the use of indium anodes and gold cathode improved the resistivity compared to the standard indium-contacted detectors. We seek to test whether simple evaporated gold contacts alone could also reduce the leakage current and thus improve the spectral resolution, especially in the 10 - 100 keV energy range. We have fabricated several metal- semiconductor-metal (MSM) detectors with a 4 X 4 array of pixels on 10 X 10 mm substrates. Measurements of the detectors' leakage current, spectral response, and temperature sensitivity are presented and compared to IMARAD's ohmic contact detector and gold contact MSM detectors made of High Pressure Bridgman (HPB) material. Finally, we show preliminary results from a tiled flip-chip pixellated detector made using the IMARAD detectors.
We report on the design and laboratory testing of a prototype imaging CZT detector intended for balloon flight testing in April 2000. The detector test several key techniques needed for the construction of large-area CZT arrays, as required for proposed hard x-ray astronomy missions. Two 10 mm X 10 mm X 5 mm CZT detectors, each with a 4 X 4 array of 1.9 mm pixels on a 2.5 mm pitch, will be mounted in a 'flip chip' fashion on a printed circuit board carrier card; the detectors will be placed 0.3 mm apart in a tiled configuration such that the pixel pitch is preserved across both crystals. One detector is eV Products high-pressure Bridgman CZT, and the other is IMARAD horizontal Bridgman material. A passive shield/collimator surrounded by plastic scintillator surrounds the detectors on five sides and provides an approximately 45 degree field of view. The background spectrum recorded by this instrument will be compared to that measured by a single-element CZT detector fitted with the same passive/plastic collimator but including an active BGO shield to the rear. This detector has been previously flown by us completely shielded by a passive cover. We describe preliminary laboratory result for the various systems, discuss initial background simulations, and describe our plans for balloon flight tests.
We present initial result from our evaluation of a PIN contacted pixelated detector using cadmium zinc telluride substrate produced by IMARAD Imaging Systems. The Horizontal Bridgman (HB) grown crystals from IMARAD have been shown to produce high resolution photopeaks but they are also seen to have large dark current. We seek to test whether the use of PIN contacts could reduce the dark current and thus improve the spectral response especially in the 10-100 keV energy range. We have fabricated PIN and MIN detector with a 4 X 4 array of pixels on 10 X 10 mm substrates. Measurements of the detectors' dark current, spectral response, and internal electric field are presented and compared to IMARAD's ohmic contact detector and PIN detectors made of High Pressure Bridgman material.
We report results of an experiment conducted in May 1997 to measure CdZnTe background and background reduction schemes in space flight conditions similar to those of proposed hard x-ray astrophysics missions. A 1 cm2 CdZnTe detector was placed adjacent to a thick BGO anticoincidence shield and flown piggy backed onto the EXITE2 scientific balloon payload. The planar shield was designed to veto background counts produced by local gamma-ray production in passive material and neutron interactions in the detector. The CdZnTe and BGO were partially surrounded by a Pb-Sn-Cu shield to approximate the grammage of an x-ray collimator, although the field of view was still approximately 2 (pi) sr. At an altitude of 127000 feet we find a reduction in background by a factor of 6 at 100 keV. The non-vetoed background is 9 by 104 cts cm-2s-1 at 100 keV, about a factor of 2 higher than that of the collimated EXITE2 phoswich detector. We compare our recorded spectrum with that expected from simulations using GEANT and find agreement within a factor of 2 between 30 and 300 keV. We also compare our results with those of previous experiments using passive lead and active NaI shields, and discus possible active shielding schemes in future astronomy mission employing large arrays of CdZnTe detectors.
We report initial results from the design and evaluation of two pixellated PIN Cadmium Zinc Telluride detectors and an ASIC-based readout system. The prototype imaging PIN detectors consist of 4 X 4 1.5 mm square indium anode contacts with 0.2 mm spacing and a solid cathode plane on 10 X 10 mm CdZnTe substrates of thickness 2 mm and 5 mm. The detector readout system, based on low noise preamplifier ASICs, allows for parallel readout of all channels upon cathode trigger. This prototype is under development for use in future astrophysical hard X-ray imagers with 10 - 600 keV energy response. Measurements of the detector uniformity, spatial resolution, and spectral resolution will be discussed and compared with a similar pixellated MSM detector. Finally, a prototype design for a large imaging array is outlined.
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