A low-cost fiber optic sensor system based on multimode fiber and an LED light source is presented. A multimode fiber Bragg grating (MMFBG) element is used as a strain sensor. In a matched grating scheme, a MMFBG similar to the sensing one was used as a reference in the receiving unit. For detection of large wavelength shift we demonstrated the feasibility of MMFBG wavelength detection using a single mode fiber fused coupler edge filter. The high cost normally associated with wavelength interrogators for single mode fiber FBG sensors was overcome by the utilization of a low cost multimode fiber pigtailed LED light source. The multimode fiber sensing system has the potential of maintaining much of the advantages of its single mode FBG sensor system counterparts. The MMFBG sensing schemes could be used for short distance, high sensitivity, high speed, strain, temperature and acoustic sensing applications
A dual-parameter optical sensor has been realized by UV-writing a long-period and a Bragg grating structure in D-fiber. The hybrid configuration permits the detection of the temperature from the latter and measuring the external refractive index from the former responses, respectively. The employment of the D-fiber allows as effective modification and enhancement of the device sensitivity by cladding etching. The grating sensor has been used to measure the concentrations of aqueous sugar solutions, demonstrating the potential capability to detect concentration changes as small as 0.01%.
This paper introduces a new type of fiber-optic acoustic emission (AE) sensor, based on a fused tapered 2x2 coupler. Laser light is injected into one input fiber and variations in the splitting ratio, caused by the passage of an ultrasonic pulse through the coupling region, are measured via a differential detection scheme. The sensor was designed to be directly compatible with an existing AE instrumentation system (the MISTRAS system from Physical Acoustics). Sensors were mounted on the surface of and embedded within glass-reinforced polyester laminates. They were excited with simulated AE signals and their performance was compared to that of a conventional piezoelectric AE transducer. The characteristics of the response of the fiber-optic sensor were similar to those of a commercial piezoelectric transducer. A signal-to noise ratio of 45 dB was achieved.
A fiber acousto-optic device is analyzed experimentally, which based on a single mode fiber coupler. The cutoff wavelength and splitting ratio in 630 nm are about 600 nm and 3 dB. When a strain wave acts on the packaged fiber coupler, the splitting ratio of the coupler will be changed which cause the modulation of output in the fiber coupler. At some frequency of strain wave, the modulation will get at Maximum.
With the increasing recognition that optical fiber-based sensor systems are ideal for structural health monitoring, there is a demand for a low-cost sensor. This paper reports on recent progress in the design, manufacture and evaluation of an intensity-based optical fiber strain sensor. The proposed sensor is referred to as the 'profile' sensor and it is made by deforming (tapering) a section of optical fiber using a standard fiber fusion splicer. Up to three profiles were made on a single fiber length and the attenuation during this process was monitored. The sensors were photographed to estimate the dimensions of the profile and then tensile tested by attaching the profile sensor to a micrometer stage. The sensors were strained via the micrometer stage in an incremental manner and the light transmission was monitored during this operation. An increase in the light transmission characteristics was observed during tensile loading. A good correlation was obtained between the experimental results and the predicted values.
Amine/epoxy based thermosets are used as matrices in a wide variety of advanced fiber reinforced composite structures. Thermosets can be formulated for specified processing routes, for example, pultrusion, prepregging, resin transfer moulding and filament winding. In general, the resin system has two or more components, which have to be mixed prior to use. Issues of concern in this area are (1) the homogeneity of the mixed resin systems; (2) the stoichiometry of the reagents and (3) the chemical stability of the individual components as a function of storage conditions prior to mixing. The availability of an on-line 'resin quality' sensor system could overcome some of the above mentioned problems. This paper reports on an on-line monitoring system for determining the amine concentration in an amine/epoxy-based thermoset, which is used for filament winding. The system is based on a dual- wavelength optical fiber sensor design. One light source at 1548 nm corresponds to the amine (N-H) absorption band and the second is centered around 670 nm. The latter serves as a reference to compensate for the scattering effects. The proposed system is capable of quantitatively determining amine concentrations during processing and offers the option of on- line process optimization for multi-component resins.
This paper reports on a novel optical fiber-based sensing scheme for conducting simultaneous strain and temperature measurements. The sensor design involved the use of an extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometric strain sensor and a rare-earth doped fiber fluorescence decay-time based temperature sensor. The combined sensors were embedded in a carbon fiber reinforced composite system and evaluated. The feasibility of using this embedded sensor configuration for simultaneous strain and temperature measurements was demonstrated.
This paper reports on a novel optical fiber sensor configuration for conducting simultaneous strain and temperature measurements. The sensor consisted of an optical fiber-based extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometer (EFPI) with an integrated fiber Bragg grating (FBG). The FBG was located within a glass capillary which housed the EFPI sensor and was thus in a strain-free condition. The FBG is primarily sensitive to temperature, while the EFPI was sensitive to both strain and temperature. The integrated FBG/EFPI sensor was embedded in a carbon fiber reinforced composite and evaluated. The standard deviation of strain measurement was 36 (mu) e in the range 0 to 1200 (mu) e, and the temperature measurement had a standard deviation of 3.5 degrees C in the range 30 degrees to 70 degrees C. The thermal expansion of the cross-ply composite was investigated and was found approximately 4.05 X 10-6 degrees C.
Advance fiber reinforced composites are used extensively for primary and secondary load-bearing applications. In general, the resin systems used in the manufacture of fiber reinforced composites are multi-component. In other words, they generally contain a resin, hardener and a catalyst. The thermal, mechanical and chemical properties of these materials are strongly influenced by the extent of mixing and the cure schedule which is used to cure the resin. This paper presents preliminary results in the deployment of a static resin mixer system to ensure efficient mixing of the resin system. This paper also reports on initial result on the feasibility of using a simple optical fiber-based sensor system to (a) infer the extent of mixing in the multi- component resin, (b) monitor the chemical integrity of the resin. Differential scanning calorimetry was also use to assess the influence of mixing efficiency on the enthalpy of the cure reaction. The technology reported here has significant implication to composite manufacturing processes which involve the use of resin bath. The contribution of the proposed technology to Clean Technology is also discussed.
This paper reports on developments in the field of self- sensing fiber reinforced composites. The reinforcing fibers have been surface treated to enable them to act as light guides for short distances. The reinforcing fiber light guides were embedded in carbon fiber reinforced epoxy prepregs and processed into composites. The resultant composite was termed the self-sensing composite as any damage to these fibers or its interface would result in the attenuation of the transmitted light. The self-sensing fibers were capable of detecting a 2 J impact.
Optical fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors have significant potential for use as embedded devices to monitor the structural integrity of engineering materials. The main drawback of the FBG strain sensor is its cross-sensitivity to temperature. This paper reports a simple scheme for multiplexing a FBG and an extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometric (EFPI) sensor to enable the decoupling of strain from temperature. The EFPI sensor was constructed using a precision bore quartz capillary tube which housed two cleaved optical fibers. The gap between the fiber end- faces served as the Fabry-Perot cavity. Since the coefficients of thermal expansion between the optical fiber and the capillary tube were similar, the EFPI sensor has a very low sensitivity towards temperature. Therefore, when both sensors are placed close together, the EFPI sensor can act as the strain sensor, and temperature can be determined from the FBG wavelength shift after taking out the strain effect. The signal processing for the EFPI sensor was based on a channelled spectrum method using a CCD spectrometer. The same CCD spectrometer was also used to determine the wavelength shift of the FBG. The cross-talk between the EFPI and FBG sensors was evaluated. The feasibility of conducting simultaneous strain and temperature measurements was demonstrated.
The detection of impact damage in fiber reinforced composites is of significant concern because such damage can reduce the load-bearing ability of the composite. A number of factors can influence the nature and extent of impact damage development in composites including: (1) the type of reinforcing fiber and resin system; (2) the magnitude of the residual (fabrication) stresses; (3) the lay-up sequence; and (4) other factors such as the nature of the impactor, impact velocity, impact energy, temperature, moisture content in the composites etc.. From a structural health monitoring point of view, it is necessary to investigate the distribution of damage through the thickness of the composite. This paper reports on a simple, partially multiplexed optical fiber strain sensor system for in-situ strain and residual strain measurements in a carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composite. An extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometric (EFPI) sensor design was used along with single mode fibers. The multiplexing scheme was based on wavelength division via the use of two super luminescent diodes at different wavelengths. A low-cost fiber optic CCD spectrometer was used as the detector. The multiplexing scheme was demonstrated using two EFPI sensors. In principle, a number of EFPI sensors can be multiplexed using the proposed scheme provided that each sensor is illuminated at a specified and different wavelength. The feasibility of detecting the residual strain in the composite was demonstrated successfully at two specified positions within a 16-ply carbon fiber reinforced composite. Preliminary results indicated that the sensor system was also capable of detecting the effects of a 3.2 J impact. Excellent correlation was obtained between the EFPI sensor output and that obtained using surface mounted strain gauges.
An optical fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensor was surface mounted onto a carbon fibre reinforced epoxy
composite and subjected to static and dynamic loading. The FBG sensor was found to operate satisfactorily up
to 700,000 cycles when the fatigue test was terminated. The fatigue test was conducted at a peak stress of 210
MPa and a stress ratio of -0.5. The FBG sensor was also found to operate satisfactorily over the cyclic loading
frequency range of 0.1 - 6 Hz used in this study. The feasibility of using the sensor system for monitoring the
stiffness ofthe composite during the fatigue test was demonstrated. The signal processing for the sensor system
was based on a CCD spectrometer. The sensitivity of the static strain measurements was found to be
approximately 80 jtc. A broadening ofthe FBG reflective spectrum was seen to develop as a function of fatigue
cycles, and this phenomenon may be due to the delamination ofthe sensor from the surface ofthe composite.
This paper reports on the use of a multimode extrinsic fiber Fabry-Perot interferometric sensor for quasi-static and dynamic fatigue loading experiments. A surface mounted extensometer was also used to measure the strain in the composite as a function of applied load. Excellent correlation was obtained between the strain data from the extensometer and the embedded EFPI sensor. With reference to dynamic loading, the sensor was found function reliable up to 1,600,000 cycles when the fatigue test was terminated. The fatigue tests were carried out using a peak stress of 260 MPa with a stress ratio of negative 0.40, and a frequency of 5 Hz. The signal processing technique was based on a channelled spectrum CCD spectrometer. The sensitivity of quasi-static strain measurements was approximately 30 micro-strain with a strain range of approximately negative 1% to 1%. The feasibility of using the EFPI sensor for stiffness-decay measurements during fatigue testing of composites was demonstrated. Preliminary results form the use of a single-mode EFPI sensor design for strain measurements in composites is also presented.
This paper reports on the feasibility of monitoring the cure of an epoxy-amine resin system using a transmission-based optical fiber sensor and near-infrared spectroscopy. The sensor was prepared from two silica fibers aligned within a notched precision bore capillary tube to produce a robust transmission cell without the need for complicated alignment. The resin system used consisted of Shell Epikote 828 (resin) and 1,6-hexanediamine (hardener). Using the optical fiber sensor, spectra were collected throughout the cure over the wavelength range 1450 - 1700 nm. Cure data from the optical fiber sensor were compared with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) experiments carried out at similar cure temperatures. The cure kinetic data were generated as a function of temperature for stoichiometric mixtures of the resin and hardener. An attempt was made to fit the cure data from the above mentioned techniques to a semi-empirical model. Good correlation was obtained between the cure model and the optical fiber cure data.
This paper presents a general overview of intensity-based optical fiber sensor systems, including those developed at Brunel University for condition and health monitoring of engineering materials. The sensor systems covered are: crack detection, a novel technique for converting glass reinforcing fibers into light guides for sensing applications, vibration monitoring and a new intensity- independent demodulation technique for fiber Fabry-Perot interferometers.
This paper discusses the development of a novel composite system where some of the reinforcing fibers act as the light guide. High purity silica reinforcing fibers with a diameter of 9 micrometer were used along with an appropriate cladding material to produce a light guide, which was termed a 'self-sensing' fiber. Self-sensing fibers were embedded within a 16-ply carbon fiber reinforced composite and the resultant panels were impact tested to examine the possibility of using the self-sensing fibers as an impact damage sensor (crack detector). Similarly, three types of conventional optical fibers, with outer diameters of 30 micrometer, 50 micrometer, and 125 micrometer were also embedded within composite panels. These were also impact tested to ascertain their effectiveness as crack detectors. Results indicate that the self-sensing fibers are capable of detecting impact damage as low as 2 J and proved to be more sensitive to impact damage than the other types of fiber investigated in this study.
An embedded, intensity-based fiber optic sensor was previously designed and evaluated for strain monitoring in advanced fiber reinforced composites under dynamic loading conditions. The original sensor design involved the use of two multimode fibers, each with a cleaved end. These fibers were fitted into a glass capillary and were secured in position via a fusion splice at each end of the capillary. However, the effective operational strain range of this sensor design was limited primarily to tensile loading. In order to use this sensor under compressive loading regimes, it was necessary to develop a technique to construct the sensor with a known separation of the fiber end-faces. In effect, the sensor is an extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometric sensor. The signal processing was based on a scanning monochromator. The feasibility of using the optical fiber sensor for tensile and compressive strain measurements was demonstrated. The sensor was also used to obtain in-situ stiffness reduction data during the fatigue testing of a cross-ply carbon fiber reinforced composite. An analysis of the relationship between detection sensitivity and sensor geometry is also presented.
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