Optical gas sensing performance of optical fibers coated with sputtered Pd/WO3 films was investigated for low concentration H2
sensing. This optical fiber H2 sensor was prepared by RF sputtering of WO3 on the tip of the multimode fiber at 260°C and
subsequently depositing a Pd catalytic layer. Highly uniform nanotextured film, with individual crystallites having diameters in the
range of 35-50 nm was observed. The sensing mechanism was based on the reflectance change of Pd/WO3 layers towards H2 reliant on
the gasochromic effect. Under the conditions of different sensing layer thicknesses and different operating temperatures, full Vis-NIR
spectra investigations were carried out during the sensor testing. It was found that the optical fiber H2 sensor coated with Pd/WO3 film
show a remarkable optical reflectance response towards H2 concentrations as low as 0.06%. The optimum sensing layer thickness was
200 nm and the optimum operating temperature was found to be 100°C.
Pt/anodized TiO2/SiC based metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) devices were fabricated and characterized for their
sensitivity towards propene (C3H6). Titanium (Ti) thin films were deposited onto the SiC substrates using a filtered
cathodic vacuum arc (FCVA) method. Fluoride ions containing neutral electrolyte (0.5 wt% NH4F in ethylene glycol)
were used to anodize the Ti films. The anodized films were subsequently annealed at 600 °C for 4 hrs in an oxygen rich
environment to obtain TiO2. The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the Pt/TiO2/SiC devices were measured in
different concentrations of propene. Exposure to the analyte gas caused a change in the Schottky barrier height and hence
a lateral shift in the I-V characteristics. The effective change in the barrier height for 1% propene was calculated as
32.8 meV at 620°C. The dynamic response of the sensors was also investigated and a voltage shift of 157 mV was
measured at 620°C during exposure to 1% propene.
Zinc oxide (ZnO) is one of the most promising electronic and photonic materials to date. In this work, we present an
enhanced ZnO Schottky gas sensor deposited on SiC substrates in comparison to those reported previously in literature.
The performance of ZnO/SiC based Schottky thin film gas sensors produced a forward lateral voltage shift of 12.99mV
and 111.87mV in response to concentrations of hydrogen gas at 0.06% and 1% in air at optimum temperature of 330 ºC.
The maximum change in barrier height was calculated as 37.9 meV for 1% H2 sensing operation at the optimum
temperature.
A gas sensor was developed by depositing polythiophene nanofibers on the surface of ZnO/36° YX LiTaO3 layered
surface acoustic wave (SAW) transducer and tested towards different concentrations of hydrogen gas in synthetic air.
Polythiophene nanofibers were synthesized by using a template-free method through the introduction of an initiator into
the reaction mixture of a rapidly mixed reaction between the monomer (thiophene) and the oxidant. The yield of the
reaction was characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as well as Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) and
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopies. The frequency shift due to the sensor response was ~17 kHz towards
1% of H2. All tests were conducted at room temperature. The sensor performance was assessed over a two day period
and a high degree of repeatability was obtained.
Polyaniline (PANI) is one of the most studied conducting polymers. Obtained in its conducting form (known as "emeraldine salt") by chemical or electrochemical oxidation of aniline in aqueous acidic medium, this polymer manifests an array of attractive properties. In our work, we investigate the properties of PANI in the form of nanofibers and establish the relationship between the level of doping, optical properties and the conductivity. Two methodologies, chemical and electro-chemical polymerization were used to deposit PANI. In former, dedoped PANI was deposited as a thin film on the glass substrate which was then doped with different concentrations of hydrochloric acid (HCl) to observe the change in conductivity and color. UV-Visible spectra (transmittance and absorbance) of the films were acquired and their conductivities were measured using a four-probe setup. In the latter method, PANI in the emeraldine salt form were deposited on ITO glass using an electrolytic cell. The voltage, temperature and electrolytic environment were varied to analyze the effect of change of doping levels on the optical and electrical properties of PANI. Surface electron microscope images were also taken which showed the nanofibers possessing circular cross sections in the order of 30-60 nm.
Presented is the dielectrophoresis of multiwalled carbon nanotubes on piezoelectric substrates patterned with gold inter
digitated electrodes. An alternating current oscillating at frequencies of 1 kHz and 150 kHz at a peak-to-peak (p-p)
voltage of 1V to 10V was applied to the electrodes, aligning carbon nanotubes suspended in droplets of isopropyl alcohol
(IPA). The carbon nanotubes were suspended in a dielectric medium (IPA) at a concentration of approx 0.1 mg/mL and
stabilized with sodium citrate (0.02 mg/ml). Sonicated for two hours and spun down in a centrifuge for 30 minutes at
4500 rpm. The carbon nanotubes used in the DEP experimentation were multiwalled carbon nanotubes with aspect ratios
of approx 100:1.
Presented is an investigation of surface morphology of arrayed MoOx structures with increasing aspect ratios, and their
resultant superhydrophillic, and their modified superhydrophobic properties. Molybdenum oxide (MoOx) submicron
structures were grown on lithium niobate (LiNbO3) substrates via the thermal evaporation of MoO3 nanopowder at 750°C in a horizontal tube furnace. A mixture of 90% argon and 10% oxygen was introduced into the thermal
evaporation tube at flow rate of 1L/min. This resulted in the formation of a white film which consisted of submicron
tabular structures. Scanning electron micrographs revealed that the tabular molybdenum oxide grew in arrays 80-100°
with respect to the plane of the substrate, with tabular structures with a thickness of approx 0.5 - 1.5μm. Initial testing of
MoOx structures revealed that they were extremely super hydrophilic. Such MoOx arrays were coated with
fluoropolymer Teflon, deposited using the RF sputtering technique. The addition of a semi-conformal Teflon layer
effectively converts the superhydrophilic MoOx layer into a superhydrophobic surface. These superhydrophobic surfaces
exhibit contact angles with aqueous media in excess of 150°. Such surfaces can be utilized for the selective adsorption
and desorption of protein or pharmacokinetic molecules, with applications in drug delivery and biomedical systems.
Polyanisidine nanofibers gas sensor based on a ZnO/36° YX LiTaO3 surface acoustic wave (SAW) transducer was
developed and tested at different concentrations of hydrogen gas in synthetic air. Nanofibrous mats of polyanisidine were
synthesized without the need for templates or functional dopants by simply introducing an initiator into the reaction
mixture of a rapidly mixed reaction between the monomer (anisidine) and the oxidant. The polyanisidine nanofibers are
characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy (UV-vis). Polyanisidine
nanofibers were deposited onto the SAW transducer and exposed to different concentrations of hydrogen gas. The
frequency shift due to the sensor response was 294 kHz towards 1% of H2. All tests were conducted at room temperature
and the sensor performance was assessed for a two day period with a high degree of reproducibility obtained.
A template-free, rapidly-mixed reaction was employed to synthesize polyaniline nanofibers using chemical oxidative
polymerization of aniline. Camphor sulfonic acid (CSA) was used in the synthesis to obtain 50 nm average diameter
polyaniline nanofibers. The nanofibers were deposited onto a 64o YX LiNbO3 SAW transducer. The sensor was tested
towards hydrogen (H2) gas while operating at room temperature. A fast response and recovery with high sensitivity and
good repeatability were observed.
Layered Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) based sensors with: InOx / SiNx / 36° YX LiTaO3 structure were developed for sensing different hydrogen (H2) concentrations between 0.06% (600ppm) and 1% H2 in synthetic air. This paper presents a comparative study of the sensors performances in terms of response time, recovery time and response magnitude as a function of operational temperature. The SAW devices consist of metal interdigitated electrodes fabricated on lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) piezoelectric substrate forming the input and output Interdigital Transducers (IDTs). A 1 μm thick silicon nitride (SiNx) intermediate layer was deposited over these finger pairs, either by Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition (PECVD) or by r.f. magnetron sputtering. A 100 nm thin film of indium oxide (InOx) deposited by r.f. magnetron sputtering provides the selectivity towards hydrogen. The highest sensitivity for the sensor with r.f. magnetron sputtered SiNx intermediate layer was recorded at 190° C, when the frequency shift of 361 KHz for 1% H2 in synthetic air was recorded. However larger responses were obtained for the sensor with the PECVD SiNx intermediate layer at 290° C, when the large frequency shift of 516 KHz was recorded for the same H2 concentration. Microstructural characterization of the InOx and SiNx films by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) is also presented.
This paper reports the thermoelectric properties of intrinsic N-type bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) thin films (2.5-10 μm thickness). These films were deposited using radio frequency (R.F.) magnetron sputtering. These properties include; Seebeck coefficient and electrical resistivity at different temperatures. It has been observed that the Seebeck coefficient and electrical resistivity of thin films are approximately -150 μV/°C and 4 x 10-5 ohm-m at room temperature, respectively. The maximum value of Seebeck coefficient of approximately -287 μV/°C was observed at 54 °C for a film thickness of 9.8 μm. The microstructural characteristics of the thin films were investigated using Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Diffraction analysis. It was observed that the thicker the Bi2Te3 film, the larger the grain size. The observed grain sizes were approximately 900 nm and 1500 nm for Bi2Te3 film of 2.6 μm and 9.8 μm thicknesses, respectively. The XRD analysis indicated the presence of rhombohedral (Bi2Te3) crystal structures.
In this paper, the design of a thin film thermoelectric microcooler module is examined. The module consists of n-type bismuth telluride and p-type antimony telluride thermoelectric materials. The commercial software CFD-ACE+ is used to implement and analyse the model. A two-dimensional coupled electrical and thermal synthesis was performed. The influence of the thickness of the thermoelectric materials on the change in temperature has been investigated. The thickness of the thermoelements was varied between 0.5 and 20 μm. The device performance in terms of change in temperature with and without a load has been studied. The optimal thickness for the thermoelements was found to be 2μm. At 30mA, a temperature difference of 3K below ambient was obtained.
A layered Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) hydrogen gas sensor, based on a delay line structure with 64 finger pairs on input and output port, is fabricated on 64° Y-cut, X-propagating LiNbO3 substrate. A guiding layer of ZnO is used to increase the sensitivity of the structure. A WO3 selective layer is employed to H2 gas sensing applications at different operating temperatures between room temperature and 300°C. In this paper, the fabrication process of WO3/ZnO/64° YX LiNbO3 sensor is described and the sensor’s response features are analyzed. The improvement of the response with the addition of a gold catalytic layer on the sensor surface is also investigated.
A layered Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) device based on an InOx/Si3N4/36° YX LiTaO3 structure is investigated for sensing ozone in air at different operating temperatures and concentrations. These concentrations are between 25 ppb and 150 ppb. Layered SAW devices are of a great interest as they show a remarkable performance for liquid and gas sensing applications. This structure is a single delay line SAW device with 64 input and output finger pairs, having periodicity of 24 μm. They were fabricated on a 36° Y-cut X-propagating lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) piezoelectric substrate. A 1 μm thick silicon nitride (Si3N4) layer was deposited over the finger pairs and a 100 nm indium oxide (InOx) sensing layer was deposited over the Si3N4 layer. Both layers were deposited by RF magnetron sputtering. InOx was chosen as it has a remarkable sensitivity towards ozone. Si3N4 was chosen as it is inert and has stable characteristics at high temperature. The sensor performance is analysed in terms of response time, recovery time and response magnitude as a function of operational temperature. The operational temperature ranges between 185°C and 205°C. The sensor shows repeatability, reversibility, fast response and recovery time. At approximately 190°C the highest sensitivity was observed. A frequency shift of 5.0 kHz at 25 ppb, 6.5 kHz at 50 ppb ozone was recorded. The presented results show this structure is promising for gas sensing applications.
A comparison between the performance of conductometric and layered surface acoustic wave (SAW) hydrogen sensors is presented. Both sensor structures employ an R.F. magnetron sputtered tungsten trioxide (WO3) thin film as a selective layer for hydrogen (H2) sensing applications. The conductometric device is based on an alumina substrate, while the layered SAW device structure is fabricated on a 36° Y-cut, X-propagating LiTaO3 substrate with a zinc oxide (ZnO) guiding layer. The sensors were investigated for different operational temperatures and various concentrations of H2 in synthetic air.
The desirable electrical properties of InOx thin films and their response towards oxidizing gases has promoted InOx to be recognized as a promising material for gas sensors. In this study, InOx films in the thickness range of 10-1000 nm were deposited onto Corning 7059 glass substrates by dc magnetron sputtering. Their structural, electrical, and O3 and NO2 sensing properties were analyzed. Structural investigations carried out by XRD and AFM showed a strong correlation between crystallinity, surface topology and gas sensitivity. Moreover, the electrical conductivity exhibited a change of over six orders of magnitude during the processes of photoreduction and oxidation. The films deposited on alumina transducers were calibrated towards O3 and NO2 at temperatures from 50-300 °C. The sensors show promising characteristics as they exhibited reproducible and stable responses. The 50 nm thin film had a response of over 10 towards 50 ppb of ozone operating at 50°C, while the 20 nm film had a response of over 22 towards 0.1 ppm of NO2 at 100°C.
A multi-layered surface acoustic wave (SAW) transducer employing an R.F. magnetron sputtered tungsten trioxide (WO3) thin film as a selective layer, for low concentration nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas sensing is presented. The layered SAW device structure is fabricated on a 36° Y-cut, X-propagating LiTaO3 substrate with a zinc oxide (ZnO) guiding layer. The dominant mode of acoustic propagation in the sensor is a combination of mainly a shear and a longitudinal displacement types. Such a structure has the advantage of confining the acoustic wave energy to the surface of the device, which increases the sensitivity of the system. A frequency shift of 30 kHz is shown for a concentration of 500ppb of NO2 in synthetic air, highlighting the possibility of such a sensor being targeted towards the sub-ppb levels of NO2.
A finite-element method is employed to model layered Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) two port delay lines, with a zinc oxide (ZnO) thin film guiding layer. The structure is based on x-cut, y-propagating LiNbO3 substrate. Conditions that model the realistic electrical and mechanical boundary values are applied to the structure to analyze the electromechanical properties of the SAW device. Transient analyses are performed and the frequency responses are calculated using the FFT. Simulation results show good agreement with experimental results, indicating that a finite-element method is an appropriate approach for modeling layered SAW devices.
Silicon carbide based metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) devices are attractive for gas sensing in harsh, high temperature environments. We present a novel hydrocarbon gas sensor based on a catalytic Metal-Reactive Insulator-Silicon Carbide (MRISiC) device. This sensor has been employed as a Schottky diode. The sensor presented is capable of operating at temperatures around 600°C. It has been exposed to propene gas, which lowers the barrier height of the diode. The MRISiC devices are based on semiconducting Ga2O3 - ZnO thin films prepared by the sol-gel process. The thin films were deposited onto the SiC by the spin coating technique and a Pt layer was deposited on the top of the metal oxide layer forming the Schottky barrier. The sensors responses were stable and repeatable towards propene at operating temperatures between 300 and 600°C. In this paper the effect of biasing is investigated by analyzing the output voltage of the diodes when biased at constant currents of 2 and 8 mA.
Molybdenum trioxide - tungsten trioxide (MoO3-WO3) and titanium oxide - molybdenum oxide (TiO2-MoO3) binary metal oxide thin films have been prepared by the sol-gel process and by PVD. The films were deposited using the spin coating technique and by sputtering onto alumina substrates with interdigital electrodes. MoO3-WO3 film morphology is composed of MoO3 needle like grains and WO3 spherical grains when annealed at 450°C. MoO3-TiO2 film morphology consists of a well-developed crystal structure for the sol-gel film and a porous morphology for the sputtered films when annealed at 800°C. The films exhibited selective gas sensing characteristics at an operating temperature of 300°C towards nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The RF and SG fabricated MoO3-TiO2 possess different gas sensing properties attributed to the fabrication and resulting morphological difference of the thin films.
Layered Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) devices that allow the propagation of Love mode acoustic waves will be studied in this paper. In these devices, the substrate allows the propagation of Surface Skimming Bulks Waves (SSBWs). By depositing layers, that the speed of Shear Horizontal (SH) acoustic wave propagation is less than that of the substrate, the propagation mode transforms to Love mode. Love mode devices which will be studied in this paper, have SiO2 and ZnO acoustic guiding layers. As Love mode of propagation has no movement of particles component normal to the active sensor surface, they can be employed for the sensing applications in the liquid media.
MoO3-WO3 thin films have been fabricated via the sol-gel method. FESEM, TEM, RBS and SIMS analysis techniques have been employed to analyse the films and material properties for use as gas sensors to detect CO and NO2. FESEM shows the film made up of segregated molybdenum crystals. TEM highlights the nano-sized grains sructure and crystallinity. RBS analysis confirmed the films are stoichimetric and that the Mo component of the system decreases as the annealing temperature is increased. SIMS illustrates the interesting elemental depth profiles of the films. The films were exposed to CO and NO2. MoO3-WO3 shows better NO2 sensitivity and selectivity compared to its single metal oxide constituents.
Layered Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)immunosensors based on a substrate crystal cut that allows the propagation of Surface Skimming Bulk Wave (SSBW)have been fabricated. SiO2 and ZnO films with different thicknesses deposited onto the substrate to form the SAW device. The layered SAW device developed is a gravimetric sensor.Upon exposures to solutions containing IgG, the operational frequency of the system incorporating the sensor changes. In this paper, the sensitivity of the SAW devices with different film thicknesses will be compared. Their response to the biochemical components will be investigated.
The need for quality control has lead to the implementation of automatic surface inspection systems, which have improved on-line monitoring of surface quality. Enamelled copper wire, cable and optical fiber are three examples where surface quality is very important. An extensive literature review conducted by the authors, has shown that with the current state of technology, there is much room for improvement in the field of non-destructive defect detection for enamelled copper wire. In this paper, the authors describe an IR light based surface inspection system which has been developed for non-destructive defect detection on cables, optical fiber and specifically on enamelled copper wire. Finally, results from extensive trials at an enamelled copper wire manufacturing company are presented and compared to a simulation, of the defect detection head.
Binary metal oxide MoO3-TiO2 thin films have been prepared by the sol-gel process. These films were deposited on sapphire substrates with interdigital electrodes and single crystal silicon substrates. The films were annealed at different temperatures of 400 degrees C, 500 degrees C, and 600 degrees C for 1 hour. The morphology, crystalline structure and chemical composition of the films have been analyzed using SEM, XRD, RBS and XPS techniques. The SEM analysis showed that the films annealed at 500 degrees C are smooth and uniform with nanosized grains and probes. RBS and XPS characterizations have revealed that the films are nearly stoichiometric. In this work, we have investigated the sensitivity of this material for oxygen and ozone gases. The MoO3-based gas sensor is capable of detecting O2 down to 50 ppm with a very fast response time. Adding TiO2 to MoO3 thin films tremendously reduced the resistance, which assisted the measurement of ozone gas sensing.
The paper describes design, fabrication and characterization of a Ti/Pt electrode system, on a sapphire substrate. It serves as substrates for subsequent deposition of gas sensitive films. The fabrication has been accomplished on both sides of a sapphire wafer. Wet chemical etching and the lift-off method have respectively been used for structuring the electrode and the heater patterns. The mechanical stability and the electrical conductivity of the resultant Ti/Pt films are greatly affected by the subsequent heat treatment procedures. The diffusion of titanium ions into platinum has been examined using SIMS depth profiles. After annealing at 600 degrees C for 5 hours, the temperature coefficient of the Ti/Pt film stabilized on the value 0.0033 K-1, which approaches the pure platinum bulk value of 0.0039 K-1. With a good mechanical and thermodynamical stability at high temperatures and under oxidizing and reducing conditions, the sapphire based Ti/Pt electrode system is well suited for gas sensor fabrication. As an example of its application, we report a highly sensitive O3 gas sensor developed by evaporating a WO3 thin-film onto this electrode.
This paper reports on the design and fabrication of surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices using lithium niobate (LiNbO3) as a substrate. Sol-gel prepared doped TiO2 thin films have been deposited onto the SAW devices by spin-coating. Modeling and simulation has been performed to predict the performance of SAW oxygen sensor using a high frequency electronics computer software package (HP-EEsofTM). Experimental work has been carried out for the purpose of evaluation of the simulated results. Resistivity of doped TiO2 thin films has been found to decrease by 47 fold when oxygen concentration decreases from 1% to 1 ppm at a working temperature of 200 degrees Celsius. The frequency shift of the SAW oxygen sensor has been measured as 180 kHz for the same change in oxygen concentration. Our preliminary experiments highlighted that the doped TiO2-coated SAW sensors can detect oxygen in the concentration range of 1 ppm-1%.
This paper presents the results of our investigation on deposition and characterization of sol-gel prepared TiO2 thin films for oxygen sensing applications. The properties of pure TiO2 thin films are compared with those doped with niobium oxide and 1%pt. These films are characterized using Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS), x-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to study their chemical composition, structure and surface morphology respectively. Both kinds of the films are stoichiometric. Pure TiO2 as well as doped films were amorphous as deposited. Pure TiO2 films after annealing to 450 degrees Celsius and above showed the formation of anatase phase, while the doped films still predominantly amorphous, barely showing the onset of crystallinity. Pure films after annealing to 600 degrees Celsius appear to have become granular and porous. Doping with niobium oxide and Pt resulted in modification of film microstructure also. As a result of doping, the gas sensitivity of the films is increased from 8 to 24 and operating temperature decreased from 320 degrees Celsius to 190 degrees Celsius.
The biosphere contains a myriad of substances which can influence or stimulate various aspects of the health and behavior of living organisms. Not surprisingly, in the last decade or so researchers have appreciated the potential of developing a range of molecular sensor technologies, designed to estimate and monitor biological and chemical substances with a view to eventually controlling the biological processes themselves. This development has been accelerated recently by the realization that molecular sensors offer considerable commercial potential. At the same time, it was quickly appreciated that such sensors could revolutionize several areas, including health care, pollution and contamination monitoring, agriculture, on-line monitoring and control of industrial chemical processing, and strategic and tactical monitoring of chemical warfare. This brief review considers the changing scene in molecular sensor research by reference to a few key examples.
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