Ghost metrology is a measurement modality exploiting correlation of photons. Recently, we have demonstrated ghost imaging and ghost spectroscopy by exploiting spatial and spectral photon correlations of amplified spontaneous emission light emitted by optoelectronic superluminescent diodes and erbium-doped fiber amplifiers. Here, we now exploit polarization correlations of so-called unpolarized light. We conceive and realize a novel communication scheme, - Ghost Polarization Communication (GPC) -, between two parties, Alice and Bob, which is based on the ultra-fast correlations of the polarization state of unpolarized classical light emitted by an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) and which provides a measure of security directly on the physical layer. The light emitted by the EDFA is divided in to a reference arm which remains solely on Bob’s side and an object arm which is sent to Alice, who encodes a message onto the unpolarized light via a half-wave plate and sends it back to Bob. By determining the second-order correlation coefficient g(2) on femtosecond timescale and using an agreed encoding table or keypad he uniquely extracts the message which has been camouflaged within the infinite number of polarization states on the Poincaré sphere. The investigated polarization correlation results are modelled within a theoretical approach based on the Stokes vectors dynamics and a Glauber protocol for g(2) and the experimental results are in excellent agreement with this theory. We conclude with a proof-of-principle demonstration of a message transmitted by GPC and discuss real-world implementation and security issues of the proof-of-principle demonstration.
We demonstrate experimentally that mid-infrared quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) operating under external optical feedback exhibit extreme pulses. These events can be triggered by adding small amplitude periodic modulation, with the highest success rate for the case of a pulse-up excitation. These findings broaden the potential applications for QCLs, which have already been proven to be a semiconductor laser of interest for spectroscopic applications and countermeasure systems. The ability to trigger extreme events paves the way for optical neuron-like systems where information propagates as a result of high intensity bursts.
Quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) are optical sources exploiting radiative intersubband transitions within the conduction band of semiconductor heterostructures.1 Mid-infrared QCLs have been thoroughly considered for applications such as spectroscopy,2 free-space communications3 and countermeasure systems.4 Under conventional optical feedback, QCLs have been proven to operate in several non-linear dynamic regimes, including deterministic chaos,5 entrainment of low-frequency fluctuations6 and square wave all-optical modulation.7 We extend the understanding of non-linear phenomena in QCLs with the experimental study of rogue waves. Rogue waves represent random isolated events with amplitudes well above that of neighboring ones, occurring more often than expected from the distribution of lower amplitude events.8 In the optical domain, rogue waves were first demonstrated experimentally in 2007 in the context of super-continuum generation in optical fibers9 and have since been observed in a wide variety of configurations such as semiconductor lasers.10 In QCLs, the extra power from these sudden bursts can be used in order to improve the efficiency of mid-infrared remote sensing or countermeasure systems. It can also be a helpful tool for neurophotonics clusters aiming to reproduce synaptic transmissions in an all-optical system. As a step toward a reliable control over these rare spikes, we carry out a statistical analysis of the interval between rogue events and show that precursors always occur before these events. The advantage of these precursors is to have a characteristic time longer than that found in other semiconductor lasers exhibiting the same non-linear phenomena. Birth of giant pulses like dragon-kings events are also discussed and analyzed.
Free-space optics constitutes a growing technology offering higher bandwidth with fast and cost-effective deployment compared to fiber technology. Multiple applications are envisioned like private communications. In such a case, the secret message is encoded into a chaotic waveform from which the information is extremely hard for an eavesdropper to extract. For free-space optics applications, the operating wavelength is an important parameter that has to be chosen wisely to reduce the impact of the environmental parameters. In this context, quantum cascade lasers are highly relevant semiconductor lasers because the lasing wavelength can be properly adjusted in the mid-infrared domain, typically at wavelengths for which the atmosphere is highly transparent. The simplest way to generate a chaotic optical carrier from a quantum cascade laser is to feed back part of its emitted light into the device after a certain time delay, beyond which chaos synchronization between the drive and the response lasers occurs. In this paper, we discuss about how quantum cascade laser's chaos can be used to develop private communication lines. We also give realistic perspectives for further developing mid-infrared private communications using chaotic waves.
Quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) are optical sources exploiting radiative intersubband transitions within the conduction band of semiconductor heterostructures.1 The opportunity given by the broad span of wavelengths that QCLs can achieve, from mid-infrared to terahertz, leads to a wide number of applications such as absorption spectroscopy, optical countermeasures and free-space communications requiring stable single-mode operation with a narrow linewidth and high output power.2 One of the parameters of paramount importance for studying the high-speed and nonlinear dynamical properties of QCLs is the linewidth enhancement factor (LEF). The LEF quantifies the coupling between the gain and the refractive index of the QCL or, in a similar manner, the coupling between the phase and the amplitude of the electrical field.3 Prior work focused on experimental studies of the LEF for pump currents above threshold but without exceeding 12% of the threshold current at 283K4 and 56% of the threshold current at 82K.5 In this work, we use the Hakki-Paoli method6 to retrieve the LEF for current biases below threshold. We complement our findings using the self-mixing interferometry technique5 to obtain LEFs for current biases up to more than 100% of the threshold current. These insets are meaningful to understand the behavior of QCLs, which exhibit a strongly temperature sensitive chaotic bubble when subject to external optical feedback.7
It is shown that dynamics of delay-coupled quantum cascade lasers can be described in good approximation by the simpler set of rate equations for conventional interband diode lasers. A comparison of the steady-state solutions for locking shows excellent agreement with results obtained by time integrations of the full rate equations. The delay introduces an effective coupling phase equal to the product of operation frequency and delay time and the detuning width of the locking range is shown to periodically change when the delay time changes over an interval equal to half of the operation oscillation period.
The linewidth of a conventional laser is due to fluctuations in the laser field due to spontaneous emission and described by the Schalow-Townes formula. In addition to that, in a semiconductor laser there is a contribution arising from fluctuations in the refractive index induced by carrier density fluctuations. The later are quantitatively described by the linewidth enhancement or alpha factor [C. H. Henry, IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 18 (2), 259 (1982), W. W. Chow, S. W. Koch and M. Sargent III, Semiconductor-Laser Physics, Springer-Verlag (1994), M.F. Pereira Jr et al, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B10, 765 (1993). In this paper we investigate the alpha factor of quantum cascade lasers under actual operating conditions using the Nonequilibrium Greens Functions approach [A. Wacker et a, IEEE Journal of Sel. Top. in Quantum Electron.,19 1200611, (2013), T. Schmielau and M.F. Pereira, Appl. Phys. Lett. 95 231111, (2009)]. The simulations are compared with recent results obtained with different optical feedback techniques [L. Jumpertz et al, AIP ADVANCES 6, 015212 (2016)].
We investigate the spectrally-resolved relative intensity noise (RIN) of a dual state emitting quantum-dot (QD) laser in dependence on the laser biasing conditions. We study the RIN under free-running conditions as well as under external optical feedback (OFB). We ï¬nd an improvement in RIN of the free-running laser when ground-state (GS) and excited-state (ES) emit simultaneously as compared to a single-state emission. Furthermore, we ï¬nd an improvement in RIN under external OFB.
We investigate the behaviour of a multimode two-color quantum dot laser subject to optical feedback. In particular, we focus on the effects of a variation of the external cavity length at the micrometer scale on the laser emission characteristics and especially on its optical spectrum. For each mode, we observe oscillations of the output power with different spectral amplitudes. No clustering or mode grouping effect is observed. Theoretically, we demonstrate a good agreement with a multimode two-color quantum dot laser model.
In addition to the phase uctuation induced by spontaneous emission, instantaneous carrier variations in semiconductor lasers generate coupling between optical gain and refractive index. This coupling between phase and amplitude of the electric field in the optical cavity is driven by the linewidth enhancement factor, which is responsible for the optical linewidth broadening, occurrence of nonlinearities or gain asymmetry, due to the curvature difierence between the conduction and valence bands. This key parameter typically takes values between 2 and 6 in interband lasers with quantum well or quantum dot active media. In quantum cascade lasers, since the lasing transition occurs between two subbands of the conduction band that have therefore similar curvatures, the linewidth enhancement factor was expected to be naught. However sub-threshold linewidth enhancement factor was measured taking values from -0.5 to 0.5 and the above-threshold linewidth enhancement factor at room temperature was found between 0.2 and 2.4. In this work, the linewidth enhancement factor of a mid-infrared quantum cascade laser emitting around 5.6 μm is measured using either the wavelength shift under optical feedback or self-mixing interferometry, resulting in values ranging from 0.8 to 3. Furthermore, a strong increase of the linewidth enhancement factor with the pump current was observed, that can be explained by a relatively large gain compression in such structures, of the order of 5 × 10-15 cm3.
The intensity noise properties of injection locked mid-infrared quantum cascade lasers are experimentally investigated. The injection locking is realized below and near the threshold of the free running slave laser, resulting in an efficient technique to achieve low noise operation. It is found that below threshold the locking characteristics (locking range shape and bandwidth) are different in comparison to those above threshold. Furthermore, an alternative injection locking realization is also investigated: injection locking into longitudinal side modes of the slave laser. Here, similar characteristics were observed, however, with the potential to achieve even higher relative intensity noise reduction suppression with respect to the quantum noise limit. The measurements are confirmed by numerical simulations with a travelling-wave model which takes into account the multi-mode spectrum of the slave laser and the spectral profile of the material gain. The experiments give the perspective for the achievement of the relative intensity noise reduction of the slave laser of up to 10 dB (above threshold) and up to 20 dB (below threshold) in comparison to the free running slave laser noise level.
In this contribution we investigate both experimentally and by simulations a quantum dot absorber of a two-section
quantum dot laser as an intra-cavity photodiode with a focus on the photo-generated absorber current.
The escape of the photo-generated ES carrier sweep-out from the absorber can be controlled by variably biasing
the absorber either with a variable external resistor in resistor Self-electro-optic-effect device (resistor-SEED)
configuration or by applying a reverse bias. This escape is directly observable in the absorber photocurrent. In
the resistor-SEED regime where the absorber is operated in so-called photoconductive mode, a steep increase in
photocurrent is observed when the ES joins the GS emission and is attributed to increased losses, as reported
recently. In contrast, GS emission and a low photocurrent in the resistor-SEED regime corresponds to a large
carrier occupation probability corresponding to a reduced escape. In reverse bias operation, sole ES emission
is observed together with a shallow increase in photocurrent with increasing reverse bias, in analogy to the
p-n photodiode characteristics. By joining both resulting photocurrent regimes, the respective contributions of
carrier capture and escape in the absorber to the averaged photocurrent is identified by numerical simulations.
The obtained numerical results are in excellent qualitative agreement with the experiment.
In this contribution reverse emission state transition of a two-section quantum dot laser at a saturable absorber
bias of zero volt (short circuit) is presented where lasing and mode-locking starts first on the energetically
higher first excited-state (ES) and then, with increasing gain current, additional lasing and mode-locking on the
energetically lower ground-state (GS) takes place. A huge coexistence regime as well as temporal simultaneity of
both GS and ES mode-locking is experimentally confirmed. At the onset of two-state mode-locking shorter pulse
widths are found for the GS as compared to the ES at the same gain current. A considerable shortening of the ES
pulse widths is observed when GS mode-locking starts. These state-resolved emission dynamics are confirmed by
time-domain travelling-wave equation modeling. Finally, by electrically shortening the saturable absorber via an
external variable resistor, a resistor Self-Electro-Optical Devices (SEED) configuration is exploited and tailored
emission state control is achieved.
In this contribution we report on radio-frequency and in particular time-domain studies to develop a better understanding
of mode-locked quantum dot (QD) two-section lasers emitting at 1.3 μm. Based on substantial investigations of the
optical pulsewidth evolution showing pulsewidths well below 4 ps, we will present the measured dependences of the
optical pulsewidth as well as the pulse-to-pulse timing jitter on gain current, absorber bias voltage and RF power. Based
on these results we will discuss the shortening of the pulsewidth, the corresponding RF spectra evolution as well as the
pulse-to-pulse rms timing-jitter evolution within a selected range of operating parameters.
We present high precision intensity noise measurements of Quantum Dot Superluminescent LEDs and lasers
emitting at 1.3μm. For the QD-SLEDs we investigate the intensity noise behavior and identify the relevant
noise parameters by comparing the experimental results to theoretical calculations. We find an Excess Noise
behavior due to amplified spontaneous emission, the dominant origin of noise. The investigation of the spectrally
resolved emission enables further characterization of the noise properties. The influence of a resonator on the
noise behavior is discussed for QD-Lasers. The noise of the laser is compared to the SLED's, and shows strong
deviation from the Excess Noise character above threshold.
We present measurements of the linewidth enhancement factor of a distributed feedback quantum cascade laser (DFB-QCL) using the so-called self-mixing technique. The linewidth enhancement factor is investigated by analyzing optical feedback induced changes of the emission properties of the laser. We will demonstrate that our self-mixing setup works well with QCLs in the mid infrared wavelength regime, and that it is possible to use the obtained signal to extract the linewidth enhancement factor. We present a setup that records the self-mixing signal with the voltage signal across the laser device using the laser as a detector itself. In this contribution we will show the advantages of this measurement technique. First measurements of the linewidth enhancement factor yield values that rise from 0.24 to 2.6 with an increase of the injection current of the QCL. We will discuss the influence of the injection current on the linewidth enhancement factor.
We apply the self-mixing method for the measurement of the linewidth enhancement factor of several types of semiconductor lasers. The α-factor value above threshold is determined by analysing the small perturbations that occur to the laser when it is subjected to moderate optical feedback, relying on the well-known Lang-Kobayashi equations. The method is applied to Fabry-Perot, VCSEL, External Cavity Laser (ECL), DFB, Quantum Cascade Laser. It is found that for some lasers the α-factor varies with the emitted power, and these variations can be correlated with variations in the laser linewidth.
An overview of the idiosyncratic emission characteristics of pulsed broad-area VCSELs is presented, together with a statistical model which describes these devices as quasi-homogeneous sources. The predicted properties of such sources, which include two reciprocity relations between near and far field aspects of the cross-spectral density as well as its propagation, are verified experimentally. We finish by showing how and which thermal effects are at the origin of this nonmodal emission.
We investigate the performance of a modern hollow-core optical fibre coupled to a GaAs-based quantum cascade laser (QCL) emitting at a wavelength of 10.7 μm. The QCL is operated in pulsed operation with current pulses of 100 ns width at a repetition rate of 10 kHz at a heat sink temperature of 258 K. The emitted light is collected by a f/1.6 ellipsoidal mirror and focused onto the hollow-core optical fibre. The investigated fibre is 2 m long and is designed for a transmission wavelength of 10.6 μm. After the transmission through fibre, the light is collected by a ZnSe-aspheric lens. We investigate the transmission efficiency of the hollow-core optical fibre and its influence on the intensity noise properties by measuring the transmitted optical peak power in relation to the emitted optical peak power. We find a total transmission loss of 6.25 dB. We then analyze the influence of this hollow-core optical fibre on the intensity noise properties of the QCL in terms of the relative intensity noise (RIN). We find that for the same detected optical peak powers the RIN of the optical power transmitted through the fibre is about 4 dB/Hz lower than the RIN of the emitted optical power. We attribute this reduction of the RIN level to a random selection process of photons due to the losses of the fibre which alters the intensity noise towards the standard quantum limit.
We present 2D-spatially and temporally resolved measurements of the emission of selectively oxidized state-of-the-art VCSELs of intermediate aperture sizes, showing their rich modal, polarization, spectral, and spatial dynamics. For the characterization of the repetitive dynamics we performed experiments with a technique we developed called TRIDA (Temporally Resolved Imaging by Differential Analysis) providing a temporal resolution down to 10 ps. From the temporal evolution of the near-field emission we provide a comprehensive overview of the phenomena in the turn-on dynamics. The evolution of the spatial intensity distribution of the transverse modes over a range of some nanoseconds is presented and discussed. Complementary, we have taken single-shot images of the near-field emission of 3ns short pulses in order to characterize the nonrepetitive part of the dynamics and to get a deeper understanding of the dynamical processes arising from the interaction of transverse modes in the turn-on process. We find strong variations in the intensity distribution among the transverse modes and the polarization directions, indicating the onset of spatio-temporal chaos. A correlation analysis for the modal intensities is performed showing the influence of the competition for the available spatial and spectral gain.
We present experimental and numerical studies of the dynamics of two delay-coupled device-identical semiconductor lasers. We concentrate on the regime of short delay times where the coupling delay is comparable to the period of the relaxation oscillation frequency. We find characteristic scenarios in the intensity dynamics depending on
the spectral detuning and the coupling phase. For small spectral detuning, the coupled lasers lock to the same frequency and exhibit stable emission. For larger detuning, we find pronounced oscillations of the output intensity. The frequency of oscillation shows a stair-like behavior which depends on the detuning frequency, the coupling time and the coupling phase. In addition, the coupling phase also affects the oscillation frequency and the phase relation between the two oscillating lasers.
We present results of comprehensive investigations of the intensity noise and the angular-resolved spectral emission characteristics of resonant-cavity light-emitting diodes (RCLEDs), demonstrating an interesting interplay between these two properties. First, we find that the intensity noise of the investigated RCLEDs, detected within a full solid angle of detection, is up to -0.15 dB below the shot noise in a quite large pumping regime, i.e., we demonstrate the successful generation of squeezed states of light with these optoelectronic devices. Second, we investigate the spectral and angular emission characteristics and find that the cavity-like character of the Bragg mirrors and the quantum well active medium manifests itself in a blue shift of the central emission wavelength from 847 nm at zero degree to 825 nm at an emission angle of sixty degree. By varying the temperature we are able to detune the quantum-well emission wavelength and the cavity resonance wavelength and
observe a broader angular intensity profile. Third, we measure the
angular resolved intensity noise. Its super-shot noise behavior
can be explained by anticorrelations between radial components of
the output intensity emitted at different angles. Finally, the
possible origin of the observed anticorrelations in the angular-resolved intensity noise, as well as possibilities for future trends, applications and the limitations of these non-classical states of light with respect to sensing and spectroscopic applications are discussed.
We present results of comprehensive investigations of the
intensity noise of continuous wave (CW) operated quantum cascade
lasers (QCLs) under various operation conditions. These
experiments are performed with the aim to measure and understand
the intensity noise of QCLs, and furthermore to explore the
potential to generate non-classical light, i.e. squeezed states of
light with sub-shot intensity noise with these new devices. First,
we measure the relative intensity noise (RIN) and find that the
relative intensity noise behaviour of QCLs is different from that
of bipolar edge emitting lasers and Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VCSELs). These observations are explained by a semi-classical noise description in which the particular level scheme of the QCLs is incorporated via an effective cascaded three-level model. Second, we compare this intensity noise with respect to the shot-noise level in order to explore the possibility of generation of squeezed states of light in the mid-infrared spectral domain with QCLs. In our first experiments we find only an intensity noise 2 dB above the shot noise level. Finally, these experimental results, the possible origin of the observed non-successful sub-shot noise generation, as well as possibilities for future trends, applications and the limitations of these non-classical states of light with respect to sensing and spectroscopic applications are discussed.
We present detailed experimental studies of the physical properties of the stable high-gain modes of semiconductor lasers subject to delayed optical feedback. We demonstrate that a sufficient reduction of the linewidth enhancement factor (alpha) is an efficient concept to achieve permanent stable emission on one of these modes. In addition, we confirm major predictions of the Lang-Kobayashi rate equation model concerning the parameter dependence of this stable emission state. Furthermore, we investigate the stability of the stable modes against external perturbations. In particular, we demonstrate that the noise induced escape from the basin of attraction of the stable mode can be well understood if a potential is assumed. Finally, by applying both, external noise, and small signal modulation, we study the interplay of noise, periodic modulation, and determinism in the vicinity of the stable mode. Thereby, we obtain further information about the phase space structure around the stable mode.
We present comprehensive investigations on the polarization resolved quantum noise behavior of vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) with various cavity designs. These experiments are accompanied by detailed studies using a semiclassical approach, first, to calculate and model theoretically the amplitude fluctuations and correlations of a two orthogonal polarization-mode semiconductor laser as realized by a VCSEL, and second, to explore theoretically the squeezing potential of VCSELs. First, we find that the possible amount of squeezing with VCSELs should be superior as compared to edge emitting lasers for ideal single mode operation and under comparable pumping conditions. Second, we demonstrate that there exists the possibility of squeezing also in the two-mode regime besides sub-shot noise emission in the well known ideal single-mode operation regime configuring the recently published first experimental demonstration of the generation of amplitude squeezed light with VCSELs. Third, we demonstrate for the first time the generation of amplitude squeezed light by a lateral and polarization single mode VCSEL with the achievement of a maximum squeezing of 0.9 dB. Finally the future trends, the applications and the limitations of these non-classical states of light with respect to metrology applications are discussed.
We present experimental and theoretical investigations of the temperature dependence of self-pulsation in CD laser diodes. We use a rate equation model to predict the device dynamic behavior over a large temperature range and identify the role of carrier diffusion. We show experimentally and by calculating that the temperature dependence of the threshold current is driven by the carrier diffusion--particularly at low temperature. We experimentally show that for several temperatures the self-pulsation variation with respect to normalized bias current is highly linear. These results call into question whether pulsations in CD laser structures are undamped relaxation oscillations. Our results also suggest that the highly temperature dependent carrier diffusion does not play a first order role in CD laser diode self- pulsation.
The origin of Low Frequency Fluctuations (LFF), occurring for semiconductor lasers with delayed optical feedback from an external mirror, has been intensively discussed within the last ten years. One of the key questions has been whether the LFF are a deterministic or a noise induced phenomenon. We present experimental evidence for a deterministic mechanism by demonstrating the two major predictions of this model: irregular pulsing of the intensity on picosecond timescales underlying the LFF dynamics, and the existence of stable compound cavity modes with high gain within the LFF regime. We present a systematic investigation of the dynamical regimes with respect to both, feedback rate and injection current. We demonstrate that stable emission can indeed be achieved for a wide parameter range within the LFF regime.
The dynamic behavior of the light output from aluminum-free 980nm ridge waveguide GaInAs/GaInAsP/GaInP pump lasers is studied in the high power regime on a picosecond time scale. Three types of the temporal evolution of the turn-on emission dynamics measured by a single-shot streak-camera can be distinguished in the near field, according to the injection current. First, at moderate pumping, the laser emission evolves through a regime of relaxation oscillations, which can be modelled by rate equations incorporating nonlinear gain. Second, at a higher current, high frequency switching between the left and right part of the active region is observed. The frequency of the switching increases proportional to the excitation current amplitude and is in the order of 10GHz. The third regime shows highly complex spatio-temporal dynamics with the coexistence of low and high frequency spatial switching and temporal pulsations. Finally, consequences of the results for applications will be discussed.
Noise and amplitude squeezing performances of vertical cavity semiconductor laser are investigated theoretically and experimentally. Theoretical results based on a newly developed semiclassical model predict very good performances for VCSELs as squeezed states generator. However, they also emphasize out the strong limitation of these performances by phenomena such as thermal roll-off, polarization instabilities, gain suppression and spatial hole burning.In addition, experimental investigations have been performed with VCSELs emitting in the 770 nm range. A good correspondence between theoretical results and experiments has been found, with the additional influence of lateral modes and the polarization of the emitted light. Finally, conclusions on possible improvements and on the optimized laser parameters are drawn.
We present an electrical pump optical probe experiment to investigate the temporal and spectral gain dynamics of an actively modelocked diode laser. The temporal behavior of the gain is studied with picosecond time resolution by measuring the transmission of a modelocked Ti:sapphire laser synchronized to the semiconductor laser through the active region of the diode. Our results show that the gain transients exhibit a strong temporal asymmetry which leads to incomplete modelocking.
Within the framework of nonlinear optics we present and discuss data of intracavity four-wave mixing within the active volume of semiconductor lasers and amplifiers and demonstrate both their importance for an understanding of the fundamental nonlinear and ultrafast processes in semiconductor waveguide devices and their potential for photonic applications.
This work describes recent results investigating the operation of a novel device arrangement which is capable of being integrated using present optoelectronic materials. The system utilizes an external cavity laser diode and an avalanche photodiode (APD) in a feedback arrangement and is capable of providing a stable train of picosecond pulses without the use of saturable absorbers or external signal generators. The role of amplification in the electronic feedback circuit is examined in detail.
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