This talk reports the operation principles and preliminary demonstration of monolithically integrated optically-addressed multiband PDs using GaSb and latticed-matched InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattices (T2SLs) to cover SWIR, MWIR, and LWIR detection ranges. The design minimizes the number of terminals so that it greatly reduces the complication of layout and device processing and ROIC complexity when implementing the photodetectors into an FPA. Details of device fabrications, characterization, modeling and performances such as dark current, spectral responsivity, and cross-talk will be presented.
This talk reviews the research on InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattices and applications to IR lasers and photodetectors with the following highlights: 1) Review of the study of InAs/InAsSb T2SL and its application to IR lasers and photodetectors in the 90’s. 2) Long minority carrier lifetimes were observed in MWIR and LWIR InAs/InAsSb T2SL. 3) Pressure-dependent photoluminescence experiments were conducted on a MWIR InAs/InAsSb T2SL structure to provide evidence for a defect level above the conduction band edge of InAs. 4) First InAs/InAsSb T2SL nBn photodetectors were demonstrated to cover both MWIR and LWIR bands. 5) Hole mobilities were measured.
The second-order nonlinear susceptibility of asymmetric type-II quantum well is predicted to be strongly enhanced by the large interband electric dipole moment in type-II structures as compared with that in asymmetric type-I quantum well designs. The practical lattice-matched InGaAlAs/InP materials system is used to calculate the nonlinear susceptibility enhancement of the type-II band alignment.
The time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) measurement provides rich information about carrier dynamics and recombination mechanisms. However, TRPL measurements are quite challenging in mid-wave infrared (MWIR) and long-wave infrared (LWIR) regimes due to noise in photodetectors and data acquisition systems. Our analysis and experimental results show that the noise in a conventional TRPL system using a traditional averaging method is dominated by 1/f noise from 10 Hz to 3 kHz. The signal is also mixed with sub-Hertz noise associated with the boxcar baseline oscillation, commonly known as the “baseline drift” issue which results from numerous fluctuations in the system. A real-time baseline correction method is proposed and demonstrated to suppress these low frequency noise sources. The real-time baseline correction method is realized by modulating the signal. The modulation can be achieved by either electrical, mechanical, or optical approaches. Analysis indicates that the noise of this method is proportional to the noise spectral density at the modulation frequency, this argument is confirmed by the simulation results. The simulated noise achieved by the real-time baseline correction method is much lower than the traditional method. Experimental results show that the low frequency baseline oscillations associated with the traditional TRPL experiments are absent using the real-time baseline correction technique, and the noise of the measurement is significantly reduced. This work establishes a more efficient experimental method for TRPL measurements on weak MWIR and LWIR PL signals, such as the InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattice samples which are used here to demonstrate the proposed method.
Significant attention has recently been given to photoluminescence (PL) spectra and lifetime measurements on InAs/InAsSb superlattices, as high quality optical material with long carrier lifetimes are required for infrared detectors. The standard sample structure for PL measurements includes energy barriers to block photo-generated carriers from being lost through non-radiative recombination at interfaces between the superlattice and the surface or between the superlattice and the buffer/substrate. However, defect, surface, and/or interface states in AlSb, a commonly used barrier material, are known to contribute carriers to InAs quantum wells. Due to the similarity of the AlSb interface with the InAs/InAsSb superlattice, the effects of the barriers on the electrical and optical properties of the superlattice were investigated. Structures with AlSb barriers at the top and bottom of the superlattice, with no AlSb barriers, and with an AlSb barrier only at the top of the superlattice structure were studied. Hall Effect measurements revealed little change in the sheet carrier concentration at 10 K due to the barriers, but significant increases in low temperature mobility and a two-dimensional-like mobility temperature dependence were observed when barriers were present. Further high magnetic field measurements are necessary, however, to understand the transport properties of these samples due to the likelihood that multiple carriers are present. The photoluminescence (PL) spectra were almost identical regardless of the barriers, except for a 15% increase in intensity with the AlSb barrier between the buffer layer and the superlattice. The surface AlSb barrier had little effect on the intensity. The barriers are therefore recommended for PL measurements to increase the signal intensity; however, they complicate the analysis of single-field Hall Effect measurements.
This paper reports a study of Shockley-Read-Hall, radiative, and Auger recombination processes in a series of molecular beam epitaxy grown InAs/InAsSb mid-wavelength infrared and long-wavelength infrared type-II superlattice samples using temperature- and excitation -density-dependent photoluminescence measurements, which are carried out from 12 to 77 K with excitation densities from 5 mW/cm2 to 20 W/cm2. A theoretical model is applied to describe the relation between integrated photoluminescence intensity and excitation density. Shockley-Read-Hall, radiative, and Auger recombination coefficients are extracted by fitting this relation. The results show that the Shockley-Read-Hall recombination lifetimes in all InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattice samples are longer than 100 ns, specifically the lifetime in a long-wavelength infrared sample reaches 358 ns at 77 K, in good agreement with the previously reported result of 412 ns measured using time-resolved photoluminescence on a similar sample.
Infrared detector arrays operating in space must be able to withstand defect-inducing proton radiation without performance degradation. Therefore, it is imperative that the proton-radiation hardness of infrared detector materials be investigated. Photoluminescence (PL) is sensitive to defects in materials, and thus can be used to quantify the effects of proton-radiation-induced defects. The excitation intensity-dependent PL was used to examine of a set of InAs/InAsSb superlattices before and after 63-MeV-proton irradiation. A proton dose of 100 kRad(Si) was applied to a different piece of each superlattice sample. The low-temperature excitation intensity dependent PL results reveal minimal increases in the carrier concentration, non-radiative recombination, and the PL full-width half-maximum. These results suggest that InAs/InAsSb superlattices are quite tolerant of proton irradiation and may be suitable for space infrared detector arrays.
Ga-free InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattice (T2SL) nBn photodetectors with very low dark current are fabricated and
characterized. The typical device without antireflection coating and surface passivation has a cut-off wavelength of 13.2
micrometers, quantum efficiency (QE) of 2.5% and a background limited operating temperature of 70 K. Our analysis
shows that the anticipated highest operating temperature of a 10.6 micrometer cut-off Ga-free T2SL nBn device can be
108 K, with a potential to reach 135 K if 20% QE or lower noise is achieved.
Temperature-dependent minority carrier lifetimes of InAs/InAs1-xSbx type-II superlattices are presented. The longest lifetime at 11 K is 504 ± 40 ns and at 77 K is 412 ± 25 ns. Samples with long periods and small wave function overlaps have both non-radiative and radiative recombination mechanisms apparent, with comparable contributions from both near 77 K, and radiative recombination dominating at low temperatures. Samples with short periods and large wave function overlaps have radiative recombination dominating from 10 K until ~200 K. The improved lifetimes observed will enable long minority carrier lifetime superlattices to be designed for high quantum efficiency, low dark current infrared detectors.
Optical and structural properties of InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattices (T2SL) and their feasibility for mid- and longwavelength
infrared (MWIR and LWIR) photodetector applications are investigated. The InAs/InAsSb T2SL structures
with a broad bandgap range covering 4 μm to 12 μm are grown by molecular beam epitaxy and characterized by highresolution
x-ray diffraction and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. All of the samples have excellent structural
properties and strong PL signal intensities of the same order of magnitude, indicating that non-radiative recombination is
not dominant and the material system is promising for high performance MWIR and LWIR detectors and multiband
FPAs.
A near infrared (NIR) and long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) dual-band infrared photodetector, which can switch
detection bands with light bias, is demonstrated at 77 K. The demonstrated scheme consists of series connected
photodetectors for different bands. The basic operating principle of the scheme is that without light bias, shorter
wavelength detector limits the total current and thus the device operates in NIR mode. With light bias on the NIR
detector, the LWIR detector becomes the current limiting device and the device then operates in LWIR mode. Proposed
design allows single indium-bump per pixel focal plane arrays, and in principle allows covering all tactical bands such as
UV, visible, NIR, SWIR, MWIR and LWIR bands with a single pixel.
With much effort devoted to the improvement of material and electrical designs, high-quality GaAs single-junction solar
cell performance is getting close to its theoretical limit. To further improve device performance, it is critical to find the
optimal optical designs for single-junction solar cells. In this work, planar single-junction solar cells are investigated
using a semi-analytical model, where combinations of smooth, textured, non-reflective, and reflective surfaces are
explored. Statistical ray tracing is used to obtain the optical properties of planar structures and the impact of critical
design parameters such as junction thickness, together with material quality and solar concentration on the device
performance is analyzed. The combination of textured and reflective surfaces shows the best performance by effectively
increasing the photon and carrier densities, which leads to higher open-circuit voltages and conversion efficiencies. It is
expected that the GaAs single-junction cells can practically achieve ~30% conversion efficiency under one sun AM1.5G,
with optimal optical structures, the state-of-art material quality, and properly designed doping profile. Even higher
efficiency of ~38% is possible via concentration of 1000 suns.
A pulsed voltage bias method is proposed to eliminate the measurement artifacts of external quantum efficiency
(EQE) of multi-junction solar cells. Under the DC voltage and light biases in the EQE measurements, the output current
and voltage drops on the subcells under the chopped monochromatic light are affected by the low shunt resistances of the
Ge subcells, which cause the EQE measurement artifacts for InGaP/InGaAs/Ge triple junction solar cells. A pulsed
voltage bias superimposed on the DC voltage and light biases is used to properly control the output current and subcell
voltages to eliminate the measurement artifacts. SPICE simulation confirms that the proposed method completely
removes the measurement artifacts.
InAs/InAs1-xSbx strain-balanced superlattices (SLs) on GaSb are a viable alternative to the well-studied InAs/Ga1-xInxSb
SLs for mid- and long-wavelength infrared (MWIR and LWIR) laser and photodetector applications, but the InAs/InAs1-xSbx SLs are not as thoroughly investigated. Therefore, the valence band offset between InAs and InAs/InAs1-xSbx, a critical
parameter necessary to predict the SL bandgap, must be further examined to produce InAs/InAs1-xSbx SLs for devices
operational at MWIR and LWIR wavelengths. The effective bandgap energies of InAs/InAs1-xSbx SLs with x = 0.28 -
0.40 are designed using a three-band envelope function approximation model. Multiple 0.5 μm-thick SL samples are
grown by molecular beam epitaxy on GaSb substrates. Structural characterization using x-ray diffraction and atomic
force microscopy reveals excellent crystalline properties with SL zero-order peak full-width-half-maximums between 30
and 40 arcsec and 20 x 20 μm2 area root-mean-square roughnesses of 1.6 - 2.7 A. Photoluminescence (PL) spectra of
these samples cover 5 to 8 μm, and the band offset between InAs and InAs/InAs1-xSbx is obtained by fitting the PL peaks to
the calculated values. The bowing in the valence band is found to depend on the initial InAs/InSb valence band offset
and changes linearly with x as CEv_bowing = 1.58x - 0.62 eV when an InAs/InAs1-xSbx bandgap bowing parameter of 0.67 eV is
assumed. A fractional valence band offset, Qv = ΔEv/ΔEg, of 1.75 ± 0.03 is determined and is practically constant in the
composition range studied.
Multiband infrared focal plane arrays (FPAs) with small pixel pitch have increased device processing complexity since
they often need more than two terminals per pixel for readouts. Simpler FPAs are enabled by our newly demonstrated
optically-addressed two-terminal multiband photodetector architecture. For long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) and midwavelength
infrared (MWIR) imaging applications, the use of quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIP) has been
investigated. The results show that the utilization of unipolar QWIPs with bipolar near infrared (NIR) devices is feasible
with this new optical-addressing scheme. Potential device performance is analyzed with an equivalent AC circuit model.
Proposed design maximizes fill factor and enables small pixel-pitch FPA with single indium-bump per pixel for
NIR/MWIR/LWIR multiband detection capability.
This paper describes structural properties of strain-balanced InAs/InAs1-xSbx type-II superlattices (SLs) with random and
modulated InAs/InAs1-xSbx alloy layers as grown on GaSb(001) substrates either by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) or
metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. The SL periods and the average Sb compositions of the InAs/InAs1-xSbx alloys are
determined by comparison of simulations with (004) high-resolution X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements. The most
intense SL peaks no longer correspond to the zero-order peak because of the large SL periods, and XRD studies of thick
individual InAs/InAs1-xSbx and InAs layers show envelope modulations of the SL peaks on either side of the substrate peak,
causing some satellite peaks to be more intense than the zero-order SL peak. From the substrate - zero-order SL peak
separations, the average SL strain in the growth direction is revealed to be less than ~0.2%. Calculated bandgap energies
agree closely with photoluminescence peaks for mid-wavelength and long-wavelength infrared samples. Cross-sectional
electron micrographs reveal the entire structure including the GaSb substrate and buffer layer, the SL periods, and the
GaSb cap layer. Growth defects are occasionally visible, some originating at the substrate/buffer interface, some starting
in the middle of the buffer layer, and some located only just within the SL. Higher magnification images of the SLs
grown by MBE reveal that interfaces for InAs/InAs1-xSbx deposited on InAs are considerably more abrupt than those of InAs
deposited on InAs/InAs1-xSbx with the most likely reason being segregation of the Sb surfactant during layer growth.
This paper reports the improvements and limitations of MBE grown 1.3μm GaAsSb/GaAs single QW lasers. At room
temperature, the devices show a low threshold current density (Jth) of 253 Acm-2, a transparent current density of 98
Acm-2, an internal quantum efficiency of 71%, an optical loss of 18 cm-1 and a characteristic temperature (T0) = 51K. The
defect related recombination in these devices is negligible and the primary non-radiative current path has a stronger
dependence on the carrier density than the radiative current contributing to ~84% of the threshold current at RT. From
high hydrostatic pressure dependent measurements, a slight decrease followed by the strong increase in threshold current
with pressure is observed, suggesting that the device performance is limited to both Auger recombination and carrier
leakage.
The optical emission and gain properties of Ga(AsSb) quantum-islands are investigate. These islands form during growth
in a self-organized process in a series of Ga(AsSb)/GaAs/(AlGa)As heterostructures, resulting in an additional in-plane
hole confinement of several hundreds of meV. The shape of the in-plane confinement potential is nearly parabolic and thus
yields almost equidistant hole energy levels. Transmission electron microscopy reveals that the quantum islands are 100nm
in diameter and exhibit an in-plane variation of the Sb concentration of more than 30 %. Up to seven bound hole states
are observed in the photoluminescence spectra. Time-resolved photoluminescence data are shown as function of excitation
density, lattice temperature, and excitation photon energy and reveal fast carrier capture into and relaxation within the
quantum islands. Furthermore, the optical gain is measured using the variable stripe-length method and the advantages of
such structures as active laser material are discussed.
The injection and temperature dependence of the spontaneous emission quantum efficiency of molecular beam epitaxy
grown InGaAs/GaAs quantum wells is determined using excitation dependent photoluminescence (PL) measurements.
The PL measurements were performed at temperatures from 50 to 300 K using a HeNe pump laser with powers ranging
from 0.6 to 35 mW. The quantum efficiency is inferred from the power law predicted by the rate equations that links
pump power and integrated PL signal. The peak spontaneous emission quantum efficiency of molecular beam epitaxy
(MBE) grown InGaAs/GaAs triple quantum wells is determined to be 0.941 at 300K with an overall best value of 0.992
at 100 K.
KEYWORDS: Photovoltaics, Solar cells, Quantum efficiency, Solar energy, Energy efficiency, Light emitting diodes, Luminescence, Electroluminescence, Active optics, Sun
It has been proposed recently that thermally assisted electroluminescence may in principle provide a means to convert solar or waste heat into electricity. The basic concept is to use an intermediate active emitter between a heat source and a photovoltaic (PV) cell. The active emitter would be a forward biased light emitting diode (LED) with a bias voltage, Vb, below bandgap, Eg (i.e., qVb < Eg), such that the average emitted photon energy is larger than the average energy that is required to create charge carriers. The basic requirement for this conversion mechanism is that the emitter can act as an optical refrigerator. For this process to work and be efficient, however, several materials challenges will need to be addressed and overcome. Here, we outline a preliminary analysis of the efficiency and conversion power density as a function of temperature, bandgap energy and bias voltage, by considering realistic high temperature radiative and non-radiative rates as well as radiative heat loss in the absorber/emitter. From this analysis, it appears that both the overall efficiency and net generated power increase with increasing bandgap energy and increasing temperature, at least for temperatures up to 1000 K, despite the fact that the internal quantum yield for radiative recombination decreases with increasing temperature. On the other hand, the escape efficiency is a crucial design parameter which needs to be optimized.
The fundamental mechanisms of electroluminescence (EL) refrigeration in heterostructure light emitting diodes, is
examined via carrier energy loss (and gain) during transport, relaxation, and recombination, where the contribution of
electrons and holes are treated separately. This analysis shows that the EL refrigeration process is a combination of
thermoelectric cooling that mainly occurs near the metal/semiconductor contacts and radiative recombination which
mainly occurs in the active region. In semiconductors such as GaAs, electrons and holes make different contributions
to the refrigeration processes as a result of their different densities of states.
A theoretical study of photoluminescence refrigeration in semiconductors has been carried out using a model that takes into account photon recycling and includes the rate equations for both carriers and photons. General expressions for cooling efficiency, cooling power density, and the cooling condition are derived. The investigation of the photoluminescence refrigeration in an intrinsic GaAs slab shows that net cooling is accessible when quantum efficiency and luminescence extraction are high, and that photon recycling contributes strongly to photoluminescence refrigeration when the luminescence extraction efficiency is small.
Room-temperature continuous wave operation of Antimonide-based long wavelength VCSELs has been demonstrated, with 1.2mW power output at 1266nm, the highest figure reported so far using this material system. Single mode powers of 0.3mW at 10°C and 0.1mW at 70°C and side-mode suppression ratios up to 42dB have also been achieved. Preliminary reliability test results have shown so far that the devices can work normally without obvious degradation after stress testing at up to 125°C for thousands of hours.
High-mobility InAs single quantum well with symmetrical AlSb and asymmetrical AlSb and Al0.8Ga0.2Sb barriers were grown on GaAs (100) by MBE. Magneto-transport studies revealed enhancement of sufficient effective g-factor in a quantizing magnetic field. This enhancement is quite sensitive to the layer composition of the epitaxially-grown structures. The implications of these results for the implementation of InAs-based spintronics structures are discussed.
We demonstrated the integration of 32 by 32 p-i-n photodiode arrays with Si-dummy chips for potential use in massively parallel short-distance optical interconnects. Individual devices in 32 by 32 InGaAs/InP photodetector arrays were successfully tested and demonstrated a small signal modulation speed above 10 GHz under dark condition, corresponding to an aggregate data transmission capacity in excess of Tera-bit/s.
We demonstrate the integration of vertical-cavity surface- emitting laser (VCSEL) arrays with Si-dummy chips for potential use in short-distance parallel optical interconnects. An 8 X 8 flip-chip bonded InGaAs VCSEL array was successfully modulated at data rates up to 0.8 Gbit/s/channel, corresponding to an aggregate data transmission capacity in excess of 50 Gbit/s. A 2 X 4 VCSEL array was indirectly flit-chip bonded to a Si substrate via a transparent glass carrier and package- limited data rates of 0.4 Gbit/s/channel were achieved. The large signal modulation bandwidth of these devices exceeded 2 Gbit/s. The electrical driving characteristics of the devices were found to be compatible with 3.3 V CMOS technology.
GaSb-based and InAs-based semiconductor gain media with band-edge wavelengths between 3.3 to 4 micrometers were used in grating-tuned external cavity configuration. Output wavelength was tuned up to approximately 9.5% of the center wavelength; and power from few tens of mW to 0.2-W peak, 20- mW average was achieved at 80 K operation. The tuning range is approximately 2 - 3 times wider than those of near-IR semiconductor lasers, as expected for mid-IR semiconductors which have smaller electron masses. The external cavity laser had a multimode linewidth of 1 - 2 nm, which was approximately 10 to 20 times narrower than that of a free running laser. Analysis of the gain/loss spectral properties indicates that the tuning range is still severely limited by facet anti-reflection coating and non-optimal wafer structure. Model calculation indicates a tuning range a few times larger is possible with more optimal wafer design.
A novel integration method is described that relies on the thermal oxidation of AlAs to form a buried current blocking layer. This integration technology, called thermal oxidation isolation (TOI), is an extension of recent work involving oxidized VCSELs. However, in addition to incorporating a conventional thermal oxide current aperture to define VCSEL active regions, a buried oxide layer is also used to provide inter-device isolation. As a demonstration of this concept, a GaAs MESFET and resonant cavity LED are integrated and characterized. The buried oxide layer is situated under the FET channel such that the transistor is effectively stacked on top of the LED. The oxide layer is also used to form a current aperture in the LED and directs current flow vertically through this device. Solid-source MBE is used to grow the device layers on a p-type GaAs substrate. The epitaxial structure consists of a p-type bottom mirror consisting of 24.5 pairs of alternating AlAs and GaAs quarter-wave layers, an undoped one-wave active region containing 3 multiplied by 80 angstrom InGaAs quantum wells and a single n-type AlAs/GaAs top mirror period. The fabrication sequence, described in some detail, is straightforward. A wet etch is used to define one mesa for the LED and a second for the MESFET. The top AlAs layer, exposed at the mesa periphery by this etch, is oxidized at 410 degrees. Celsius in a steam ambient to form the current- guiding regions. A conventional MESFET fabrication sequence is then used to complete the transistor and form the LED cathode (which is connected to the FET drain). A back contact is then deposited to form the LED anode. In all, five mask levels are used to fabricate the integrated FET/LED (or VCSEL) structure. Functionality of these prototype devices is demonstrated by dc and modulation measurements. The MESFET gate length and width are 3 micrometer and 100 micrometer, respectively. The transistor operated in the depletion mode with a typical Idss of 8 mA and a maximum transconductance of 35 mS/mm. The LED wavelength is about 990 nm and has output power in the (mu) W range when driven by the MESFET.
The role of surface states in reducing the radiative efficiency of a GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well (QW), situated in proximity of the surface, has been investigated. The near-surface QW photoluminescence (PL) was utilized as a probe of the effects of room-temperature hydrogen irradiation and of the subsequent evolution of the system in time. The e1 - hh1 PL at 1.4 K of various near-surface wells, differing in distance from the surface, was found to drop when the AlGaAs barrier was made thinner than 150 angstroms, due to short-circuiting recombination processes at the surface. The data were interpreted in terms of electron and hole tunneling to surface states. A study of the stability of the passivation effect -- samples being investigated again after an eight-month-long exposure to air, or after annealing in vacuum -- is indicative of important changes in the lifetimes of the different radiative and non-radiative processes associated with the well.
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