This study compares different approaches for imaging the internal architecture of graphite/epoxy composites using backscattered ultrasound. Two cases are studied. In the first, near-surface defects in a thin graphite/epoxy plates are imaged. The backscattered waveforms were used to produce peak-to-peak, logarithm of signal energy, as well as entropy images of different types. All of the entropy images exhibit better border delineation and defect contrast than either the peak-to-peak or the logarithm of signal energy. The best results are obtained using the joint entropy of the backscattered waveforms with a reference function. Two different references are examined. The first is a reflection of the insonifying pulse from a stainless steel reflector. The second is an approximate optimum obtained from an iterative parametric search. The joint entropy images produced using this reference exhibit three times the contrast obtained in previous studies. These plates were later destructively analyzed to determine size and location of near-surface defects and the results are found to agree with the defect location and shape as indicated by the entropy images. In the second study, images of long carbon fibers (50% by weight) in polypropylene thermoplastic were obtained as a first step toward ultrasonic determination of the distributions of fiber position and orientation.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is an information-rich method that reveals chemical bonding near the surface of polymer composites. FTIR can be used to verify composite composition, identify chemical contaminants and expose composite moisture content. Polymer matrix changes due to thermal exposure including loss of additives, chain scission, oxidation and changes in crystallinity may also be determined using FTIR spectra. Portable handheld instruments using non-contact reflectance or surface contact attenuated total reflectance (ATR) may be used for nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of thermal aging in polymer and composite materials of in-service components. We report the use of ATR FTIR to track oxidative thermal aging in ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR) and chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) materials used in medium voltage nuclear power plant electrical cable insulation and jacketing. Mechanical property changes of the EPR and CPE materials with thermal degradation for correlation with FTIR data are tracked using indenter modulus (IM) testing. IM is often used as a local NDE metric of cable jacket health. The FTIR-determined carbonyl index was found to increase with IM and may be a valuable NDE metric with advantages over IM for assessing cable remaining useful life.
The electrochemical properties of carbon nanotube (NT) assemblies are relevant for many potential nanotube applications including super-capacitors, batteries, fuel cells and actuators. In this work, the double-layer capacitance of a paper of single-walled carbon nanotubes is determined for a series of concentrations of NaCl in water. The dependence of capacitance on potential was also determined in an effort to locate the potential of zero charge (PZC) for each NaCl concentration. The double-layer capacitance of the NT paper is seen to increase with electrolyte concentration, while the PZC (capacitance minimum) is seen to depend more on the sequence of electrolyte concentration tested (sample history) than on the concentration of electrolyte itself.
The electromechanical actuation performance of carbon nanotube mats, polypyrrole films and hybrid nanotube-polypryrrole materials has been compared. The hybrid materials were formed by coating nanotube mats with polypyrrole using vapour deposition and electropolymerisation techniques. When the coating time was short, the hybrid materials showed the electrochemical responses typical of polypyrrole and retained the porous structure of the nanotube mats. The actuator response of the different materials was determined isotonically at different applied loads. The nanotube mat and hybrid materials gave actuator strains that were largely insensitive to the applied stress up to ~ 10 MPa. The hybrid materials were virtually identical to the uncoated nanotube mats in terms of actuator performance. A simple model showed that the actuator strain depends upon the difference in elastic modulus of the actuator material in the doped and undoped states.
The mechanisms of actuation operating in polymeric actuators are reviewed along with a comparison of actuator performance. Polymer hydrogel actuators show very large dimensional changes, but relatively low response times. The mechanism of actuation involves several processes including electro-osmosis and electrochemical effects. Conducting polymer actuators operate by Faradaic reactions causing oxidation and reduction of the polymer backbone. Associated ion movements produce dimensional changes of typically up to 3%. The maximum stress achieved to date from conducting polymers is not more than 10 MPA. Carbon nanotubes have recently been demonstrated as new actuator materials. The nanotubes undergo useful dimensional changes (approximately 1%) but have the capacity to respond very rapidly (kHz) and generate giant stresses (600 MPa). The advantages of nanotube actuators stem from their exceptional mechanical properties and the non-Faradaic actuation mechanism.
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