Current state-of-the art radiation-hydrodynamic codes do not include the physics involved in the laser-induced solid-to-plasma transition. However, this transition process is understood to significantly impact the resulting ablation and shock front geometry, due to “laser imprint” and “shinethrough.” An experimental system involving synchronized femtosecond and picosecond lasers is developed to initiate and characterize dynamics of planar target materials irradiated by conditions similar to a “picket” prepulse from a direct-drive pulse shape. Ultrafast imaging of the resulting plasma formation, plume expansion, and shock-wave propagation is performed with femtosecond-scale resolution for a polystyrene target. These results may be used to improve future direct-drive experimental and modeling efforts.
Transverse stimulated raman scattering (TSRS) in potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) and deuterated potassium dihydrogen phosphate (DKDP) plates for polarization control is a well-recognized limitation, giving rise to parasitic energy conversion and laser-induced damage. TSRS amplification is a coherent process that grows exponentially and distributed nonuniformly in the crystal and at the crystal surfaces. To understand the growth and spatial distribution of TSRS energy, a modeling approach was developed to simulate operational conditions in inertial confinement fusion-class laser systems. The result helps assess upper limits for operational conditions and guide possible ways to suppress the TSRS gain.
It is presently well understood that the operational performance limits of optics are determined by three fundamental attributes: the initiation of laser-induced damage, the growth of damage sites, and the transient (nondamaging) modification of optical parameters. The comprehensive characterization of the performance limitations of ultrafast optics requires consideration of all three fundamental attributes. The vast majority of the literature to date, however, has focused primarily on damage-initiation and testing systems that are largely focused on determining the damage-initiation threshold under single- and multipulse excitation. We discuss a testing apparatus that was designed to offer the capability to adequately characterize all three of these performances attributes under femtosecond, near-infrared laser irradiation. Key aspects of the methodology are discussed; these include high-dynamic-range energy control, variable beam size, wavelength tunability, B-integral management, and functional performance characterization to explore the true operational limits of the components. Example results for a metal-dielectric mirror demonstrate the test station’s operation.
The design principles of a 20-fs, near-infrared laser-induced–damage testing system are presented. In addition to typical damage-initiation threshold tests such as S-on-1 and raster scan, this system is capable of studying other performance-relevant metrics, such as damage growth and functional thresholds. Experimental results for a hybrid mirror sample are presented as a demonstration.
The transverse spontaneous Raman scattering in a configuration analogous to the geometry of a large-aperture potassium dihydrogen phosphate polarization rotator plate for inertial confinement fusion-class lasers is investigated. The experimental setup enabled effectively measuring the transverse Raman scattering in 360° around the beam propagation direction for any crystal optic-axis (OA) alignment. Results reveal the angular dependence of the transverse Raman scattering signal as a function of (1) the angle between the OA and the pump-beam propagation and (2) the angle of the X-Y axis around the OA. These results enable the consideration of optimal crystal cut designs for specific applications.
Developed by the OSA Rochester Section (OSA-RS), the Optics Suitcase is an innovative, interactive presentation package designed to introduce middle school students to the dynamic and exciting range of concepts within the study of light. The Optics Suitcase contains supplies and giveaway theme packets for in-class presentations that explore color in white light. The goal is to help promote technology careers to middle school age students. A detailed presentation guide is included with the suitcase to help give presenters techniques for engaging students during the presentation and making the demonstrations more interactive. Three experiments explore the colors constituting white light in the form of diffraction (The Rainbow Peephole), polarization (Magic Stripes) and selective reflection (Magic Patch). These three experiments use giveaway theme packets that are designed to help reinforce the study of light concepts at home as students present the information they learned to their family and friends at home. This paper outlines the contents of the Optics Suitcase, a typical lesson plan as well as tips for giving an Optics Suitcase presentation.
Multibeam lasers often require an output beam balance that specifies the degree of simultaneity of the laser output energy, instantaneous power, or instantaneous irradiance (power per unit area). This work describes the general problem of balancing a multibeam laser. Specific techniques used to balance the output power of the 60-beam pulsed OMEGA Laser System are discussed along with a measured reduction of beam-to-beam imbalance. In particular, the square-pulse distortion induced by a simple saturating amplifier operating with its output at some fraction of its saturation fluence is derived, and a method to exchange gain between saturated amplifiers in a single beam that have different saturation fluences to adjust balance is described.
The translation of microscopy with ultraviolet surface excitation (MUSE) into a high school science classroom is investigated with the goal of providing a suitable new modality to enhance life science education. A key part of this effort is the development of laboratory exercises that can integrate the advanced capabilities of MUSE into a classroom setting. MUSE utilizes the unique property of ultraviolet light at wavelengths between 250 and 285 nm to propagate about 10 μm into tissues, thus illuminating only the top cell layer. This illumination is provided by a low-power UV LED source, which enables one to cost-efficiently implement this method into the educational environment. MUSE in education can eliminate the need for premade microscope slides and provide a far more engaging and rewarding experience for students.
The ability to reversibly photo-pattern an infinite variety of high-quality, high-resolution alignment domain orientations and shapes makes photoswitchable LC devices ideal candidates for laser applications where electro-optical spatial-light modulators cannot be used due to their low laser-damage resistance (typically, 230 mJ/cm2 at 2.4 ns, 5 Hz at 1053 nm). Such all-optical devices also have the advantage of their inherent simplicity (no electrical interconnects or driver electronics) and convenient in-system write/erase capability. Azobenzene-based photoswitchable alignment materials are excellent candidates for such devices by virtue of their high laser damage thresholds at 1053 nm, which range from 24-66 J/cm2 (1.4 ns pulse). In this work, LC devices fabricated with commercial azobenzene photoalignment layers were exposed to a series of varying optical patterns that were sequentially written, erased and re-written into the assembled devices using either contact photolithography with a xenon/mercury high-pressure arc lamp source or a 433 nm diode laser. These devices were capable of being written, erased and re-written in excess of 30 times without showing significant image burn-in or loss of patterning resolution. Amplitude beam shaping of a 500 mW Nd;YLF 1053 nm laser beam in a laboratory bench-top setup was demonstrated using photoswitchable LC devices in which the beam-shaping profile had been written using the 433 nm diode laser setup and photolithography mask in a bench-top image relaying setup. Similar optical patterning experiments conducted on a series of new photoalignment materials synthesized in-house have shown one example in which written optical patterns have remained stable for more than 4 months under ambient conditions.
Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) cryogenic experiments on the 60-beam OMEGA laser have strict requirements for the laser energy delivered on target to be power balanced in order to maximize target-irradiation uniformity. For OMEGA, this quantity (power balance) is inferred from measurements of the time-integrated energy and time-resolved, spatially integrated temporal profile of each of the 60 beams at the output of the laser. The work presented here proposes a general definition of power balance as measured at the laser output and discusses the conditions that are fundamental to achieving laser power balance. Power balance necessitates equal gain across all stages of amplification, equal net losses across each amplifier stage, equal frequency conversion (from 1053 nm to 351 nm) of all 60 beams, and equal beam path lengths (beam timing). Typical OMEGA ICF laser pulse shapes consist of one or more short (100-ps) "pickets" followed by a shaped "drive" pulse of 1 to 2 ns. For these experiments, power balance is assessed for the pickets and the drive independently, with the ultimate goal of achieving root-mean-square (rms) imbalance across all 60 beams of less than 2% rms on both. This work presents a comprehensive summary of laser shot campaigns conducted to significantly improve laser power balance from typical rms values of 4.7% and 5.2%, respectively, to the 3% level for both features along with a discussion of future work required to further reduce the rms power imbalance of the laser system.
Damage-test data are scarce for liquid crystalline (LC) materials at 1-ns pulse lengths and nonexistent at shorter pulselengths.
Here we describe the methodology to develop a comprehensive database of damage performance for typical
nematic LC’s for a wide range of pulse lengths at 1053 nm. This series of nematic LC materials investigates the effect of
a varying degree of π-electron delocalization. Obtaining damage-threshold measurements is of fundamental interest for
the consideration of LC materials for applications in short-pulse laser systems.
Photo-alignment technology is important for liquid crystal (LC) device applications where both high resistance to incident optical energy and spatially distributed alignment states over the device clear aperture are required. Coumarin-based photo-alignment materials developed at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE) possess near-IR laser damage resistance approaching that of fused silica and have been employed in the development and fabrication of a wide variety of LC high-peak-power laser optics. One example is a photo-patterned LC beam shaper, developed for use in LLE’s four-beam, petawatt-peak-power OMEGA EP laser, that has demonstrated 1054-nm, 1 ns laser-damage thresholds approaching those of dielectric thin-film Brewster’s angle polarizers (30 to 40 J/cm2). Achieving similar performance levels in LC devices for near-UV applications is challenging due to a scarcity of both UV-transparent LC materials and polymer alignment layers that can withstand repeated exposure to intense pulsed- or CW UV irradiation without degradation. Previously-employed alignment materials for UV-LC devices such as buffed polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) or Nylon 6/6 have limited usefulness; buffing embeds particulates and scratches into the alignment layer that reduce its UV damage thresholds to only a few J/cm2 and is incapable of producing highly resolved and spatially-distributed LC alignment states. In recent experiments, we have found that coumarin photoalignment materials are remarkably more resistant to damage from both incident 351 nm, 1 ns high-energy laser pulses [~11.42 J/cm2 (1-on-1) and ~15.70 J/cm2.(N-on-1)] and broad-band, continuous wave (CW) UV-visible light than would be expected due to their highly conjugated aromatic electronic structures. This finding opens a new chapter in the development of LC devices for UV applications in high-peak-power lasers (e.g. wave plates, polarization rotators, radial polarization converters, photo-patterned beam shapers) and other areas of optics and photonics where UV stability is important (e.g., space-based applications).
Two diagnostics have been developed to improve the uniformity on the OMEGA Laser System, which is used for
inertial confinement fusion (ICF) research. The first diagnostic measures the phase of an optical modulator (used for
the spectral dispersion technique employed on OMEGA to enhance spatial smoothing), which adds bandwidth to the
optical pulse. Setting this phase precisely is required to reduce pointing errors. The second diagnostic ensures that the
arrival times of all the beams are synchronized. The arrival of each of the 60 OMEGA beams is measured by placing a
1-mm diffusing sphere at target chamber center. By comparing the arrival time of each beam with respect to a reference
pulse, the measured timing spread of the OMEGA Laser System is now 3.8 ps.
The multiple-pulse driver line (MPD) provides on-shot co-propagation of two separate pulse shapes in all 60 OMEGA beams at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE). The two co-propagating pulse shapes would typically be (1) a series of 100-ps “picket” pulses followed by (2) a longer square or shaped “drive” pulse. Smoothing by spectral dispersion (SSD), which increases the laser bandwidth, can be applied to either one of the two pulse shapes. Therefore, MPD allows for dynamic bandwidth reduction, where the bandwidth is applied only to the picket portion of a pulse shape. Since the use of SSD decreases the efficiency of frequency conversion from the IR to the UV, dynamic bandwidth reduction provides an increase in the drive-pulse energy. The design of the MPD required careful consideration of beam combination as well as the minimum pulse separation for two pulses generated by two separate sources. A new combined-pulse-shape diagnostic needed to be designed and installed after the last grating used for SSD. This new driver-line flexibility is built into the OMEGA front end as one component of the initiative to mitigate cross-beam energy transfer on target and to demonstrate hydro-equivalent ignition on the OMEGA laser at LLE.
Liquid crystals have had a large presence in the display industry for several decades, and they continue to remain at the
forefront of development as the industry delves into flexible displays and electronic paper. Among the emerging
technologies trying to answer this call are polymer cholesteric liquid crystal (PCLC) flakes. The motion of PCLC flakes
suspended in a host fluid is controlled with an electric field, whereby the flakes reorient to align parallel with the applied
field. A PCLC device easily switches from a bright state, where light of a given wavelength and polarizationis selectively
reflected, to a dark, non-reflective state. The device returns to a bright state when the flakes relax to their original
orientation after removal of the applied field. Progress has been made in addressing several key device issues: the need to
switch flakes back to a reflective state quickly, the development of bistability, the ability to produce flexible devices, and
the necessity to produce both high brightness and a large contrast ratio. Improvements in the technology have been made
by addressing the optical, mechanical, chemical, and electrical features and characteristics of the PCLC flake/fluid host
system. The manufacture of "custom" flakes by the process of formation of specific flake shapes, the addition of dopants,
or the formation of layered flake composites results in particles with improved reflectivity and response times along with
the ability to respond to both AC and DC fields. Specially designed driving waveforms provide a new means for
controlling flake motion. PCLC flake micro-encapsulation allows for the possibility of flexible and potentially bistable
devices. Here we report on the wide variety of approaches toward improving PCLC flake devices and their results.
Polymer cholesteric-liquid-crystal (PCLC) flakes suspended in a fluid are used as the active medium in a novel particle-based, electro-optic technology. The motion of PCLC flakes is controlled with an electric field so that PCLC flake devices are brightly reflective in their "off" state and appear dark when an electric field is applied, causing the flakes to reorient 90°. Basic devices using a mildly conductive host fluid such as propylene carbonate are not bistable, and flakes relax to their original position within tens of seconds to minutes after the electric field is removed. We seek to control flake orientation by designing waveforms that follow the initial drive voltage. Shaped pulses were investigated to accelerate flake relaxation. The optimal pulse for motion reversal was found to be a 1.5-s sawtooth pulse with a 3-V amplitude. We also examined the use of holding voltages, which follow the driving voltage, but have amplitudes a fraction of the driving-voltage magnitude. The holding voltage prevents flakes from relaxing, while saving on power consumption. Cells driven at several volts were found to retain their brightness with the application of a holding voltage between 0.4 to 0.5 V.
Thin-film polarizers are essential components of large laser systems such as OMEGA EP and the NIF because of the need to switch the beam out of the primary laser cavity (in conjunction with a plasma-electrode Pockels cell) as well as providing a well-defined linear polarization for frequency conversion and protecting the system from back-reflected light. The design and fabrication of polarizers for pulse-compressed laser systems is especially challenging because of the spectral bandwidth necessary for chirped-pulse amplification.
The design requirements for a polarizer on the OMEGA EP Laser System include a Tp greater than 98% over a spectral range of 1053±4 nm while maintaining a contrast ratio (Tp/Ts) of greater than 200:1 (500:1 goal) over the same range. An allowance must be made for the uniformity of the film deposition such that the specifications are met over the aperture of the component while allowing for some tolerance of angular misalignment. Production results for hafnia/silica designs will be shown, illustrating high transmission and contrast over an extended wavelength/angular range suitable for the 8 nm spectral bandwidth of OMEGA EP. Difficulties in production will also be illustrated, as well as the methods being implemented to overcome these challenges. A key challenge continues to be the fabrication of such a coating suitable for use on fused-silica substrates in a dry environment. Laser-damage thresholds for 1-ns and 10-ps pulse widths will be discussed.
The OMEGA EP Facility includes two high-energy, short-pulse laser beams that will be focused to high intensity in the OMEGA target chamber, providing backlighting of compressed fusion targets and investigating the fast-ignition concept. To produce 2.6-kJ output energy per beam, developments in grating compressor technology are required. Gold-coated diffraction gratings limit on-target energy because of their low damage fluence. Multilayer dielectric (MLD) gratings have shown promise as high-damage-threshold, high-efficiency diffraction gratings suitable for use in high-energy chirped-pulse amplification [ B. W. Shore et al., J. Opt. Soc. Am. A14, 1124 (1997).] Binary 100-mm-diam MLD gratings have been produced at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE) using large-aperture, holographic exposure and reactive ion-beam etching systems. A diffraction efficiency of greater than 99.5% at 1053 nm has been achieved for gratings with 1740 grooves/mm, with a 1:1 damage threshold of 5.49 J/cm2 diffracted beam fluence at 10 ps. To demonstrate the ability to scale up to larger substrates, several 100-mm substrates have been distributed over an aperture of 47 × 43 cm and successfully etched, resulting in high efficiency over the full aperture. This paper details the manufacture and development of these gratings, including the specifics of the MLD coating, holographic lithography, reactive ion etching, reactive ion-beam cleaning, and wet chemical cleaning.
Multilayer dielectric (MLD) diffraction gratings are a key component for the construction of high-peak-power, pulse-compressed laser systems. While a great deal of effort has been devoted to the design of optimal grating structures and the etching of these structures into the MLD coating, there has not been the same effort put into the optimization of the MLD coating itself. The primary characteristics of the multilayer that must be considered during design include minimization of the standing wave created in the photoresist because of the reflectivity of the coated optical surface, creation of a sufficiently high reflectivity at the use wavelength and incidence angle in a dry environment, proper balance of the individual layer materials to yield a coating with an overall neutral or slightly compressive stress, and a high laser-damage threshold for the wavelength and pulse duration of use. This work focuses on the modification of a standard MLD mirror, while considering these characteristics, to allow the fabrication of a diffraction grating with higher efficiency and laser-damage threshold than is typically achieved. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the grating structures demonstrate smoother shapes with lower roughness due to the holographic exposure. Damage testing performed at 1053 nm with a pulse width of 10 ps demonstrates the MLD coating has a sufficiently high laser-damage threshold to form the basis of reflection gratings that survive in high-fluence applications.
When flakes of polymer cholesteric liquid crystals (PCLC's) are dispersed in a fluid host and subjected to an applied electric field, their bright, polarization-selective reflection color is extinguished as they undergo field-induced rotation. Maxwell-Wagner (interfacial) polarization is the underlying physical mechanism for flake motion and results from the large difference in dielectric properties of the flake and fluid hosts. Flake reorientation times can be as short as 300 ms to 400 ms at exceedingly low driving fields (10 to 100 mVrms/μm) and are dependent on flake size and shape, fluid host dielectric constant and viscosity, and drive-filed frequency and magnitude. These attributes make this new materials system of special interest in electro-optical and photonics applications, where reflective-mode operation, polarization selectivity, and low power consumption are of critical importance (e.g., reflective displays).
Until very recently, the electro-optical reorientation of PCLC flakes has been studied only in sandwich-type cells using glass substrates. In this work, we report on the dc field-induced reorientation behavior of PCLC flakes contained in confined spherical or near-spherical fluid-filled cavities formed by microencapsulation of the flake/fluid host dispersion in a water-borne flexible binder. This PCLC flake-fluid host/binder emulsion is coated onto either rigid or flexible condutive-coated substrates and then overcaoted (uniformly or patterned) using a conductive emulsion or paint that is either absorbing (black) or reflecting (silver). In addition to providing a unique environment to study flake motion, this device geometry also extends the application scope of the technology to conformal, electrically switchable coatings for large planar areas and flexible media for information display applications (e.g., electronic paper).
Electric fields can induce motion of polymer cholesteric liquid crystal (pCLC) flakes suspended in a fluid medium. The platelet-shaped pCLC flakes with a Grandjean texture show strong selective reflection when lying flat in the plane of a conventional cell. As their orientation with respect to normally incident light changes, their selective reflection color shifts toward the blue and diminishes until the flakes are no longer easily visible beyond 7-12° of rotation. Reproducibility and control of motion has been observed in moderately conductive host fluid. Flakes in such hosts do not respond to a DC electric field, but they rotate 90° in an AC field within a given frequency band. The response times and frequency regions for motion depend partially on the field magnitude, the dielectric properties of the host fluid and the flake geometry. We observe flakes reorienting in less than 500 ms in an electric field of 0.17 Vrms/μm, while sub-second reorientation is seen in fields as low as 5x10-2 Vrms/μm. This response time is comparable with typical electronic-paper applications, but with a significantly lower electric field. Displays using pCLC flakes would not require backlighting, sheet polarizers, color filters or alignment layers. Numerous additional applications for pCLC flakes are envisioned, including filters, polarizers, and spatial light modulators.
The electro-optical properties of UltradelR 9000D polyimides doped with DCM and DADC, a bis(carbazole) analog of DCM with improved thermal stability, are reported. Cure temperatures were restricted to 240 degree(s)C or less to minimize potential thermal degradation of these dyes. Low poling fields of 30 V/micrometers were used in these experiments and yielded r13 coefficients in the 0.1 - 0.8 pm/V range. Photothermal deflection measurements of dye-doped Ultradel 9000D samples showed low optical absorption losses in systems cured at 175 degree(s)C, but losses exceeded 20 dB/cm in samples cured at 300 degree(s)C.
The properties of new, high temperature optical materials based on dye-doped Ultradel 9000D polyimides are presented. Ultradel 9000D is a soluble, pre-imidized, fluorinated polymer with properties optimized for integrated optical applications. When thermally or photochemically cross-linked, it has a Tg approaching 400$DEGC and retains excellent optical transparency as measured by both waveguide loss spectroscopy (WLS) and photothermal deflection spectroscopy (PDS). The agreement between WLS and PDS data indicates that losses in polyimides are due to absorption, not scattering. Two thermally stable, donor-acceptor oxazole-based dyes were designed, synthesized, and doped into the polyimide at concentrations up to 25 percent by weight. The Tg of the doped polymers decreased from the neat polymer, but remained above 300$DEGC. The effects of doping on the dielectric constant, refractive index, and coefficient of thermal expansion of the polyimide are presented.
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