We advocate for the development of a ground-based network of robotic instruments provisionally called ngGONG to maintain critical observing capabilities for synoptic research in solar physics and for the operational space weather forecast. ngGONG will consist of 6 geographically-distributed stations, with longitudes and weather patterns selected to provide nearly continuous observations of the Sun. ngGONG instruments will include: spectropolarimeters for precise measurements of vector magnetic fields at multiple heights in the solar atmosphere; an instrument for line-of-sight Doppler velocity measurements required for studies of the solar interior and farside; rapid narrow-band images; sun-as-a-star instruments; and tunable Hα imager and limited coronagraph capabilities to monitor the violent ejecta of magnetized plasma from the Sun’s atmosphere and determine coronal magnetic topologies and plasma properties. We will discuss the requirements for such an observing system, and present its conceptual design.
Construction of the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) is well underway on the Haleakalā summit on the Hawaiian island of Maui. Featuring a 4-m aperture and an off-axis Gregorian configuration, the DKIST will be the world’s largest solar telescope. It is designed to make high-precision measurements of fundamental astrophysical processes and produce large amounts of spectropolarimetric and imaging data. These data will support research on solar magnetism and its influence on solar wind, flares, coronal mass ejections, and solar irradiance variability. Because of its large aperture, the DKIST will be able to sense the corona’s magnetic field—a goal that has previously eluded scientists—enabling observations that will provide answers about the heating of stellar coronae and the origins of space weather and exo-weather. The telescope will cover a broad wavelength range (0.35 to 28 microns) and operate as a coronagraph at infrared (IR) wavelengths. Achieving the diffraction limit of the 4-m aperture, even at visible wavelengths, is paramount to these science goals. The DKIST’s state-of-the-art adaptive optics systems will provide diffraction-limited imaging, resolving features that are approximately 20 km in size on the Sun.
At the start of operations, five instruments will be deployed: a visible broadband imager (VTF), a visible spectropolarimeter (ViSP), a visible tunable filter (VTF), a diffraction-limited near-IR spectropolarimeter (DLNIRSP), and a cryogenic near-IR spectropolarimeter (cryo-NIRSP). At the end of 2017, the project finished its fifth year of construction and eighth year overall. Major milestones included delivery of the commissioning blank, the completed primary mirror (M1), and its cell. Commissioning and testing of the coudé rotator is complete and the installation of the coudé cleanroom is underway; likewise, commissioning of the telescope mount assembly (TMA) has also begun. Various other systems and equipment are also being installed and tested. Finally, the observatory integration, testing, and commissioning (IT&C) activities have begun, including the first coating of the M1 commissioning blank and its integration within its cell assembly. Science mirror coating and initial on-sky activities are both anticipated in 2018.
Long-term synoptic observations of the Sun in different wavelength regions are essential to understand its secular behavior. Such observations have proven very important for discovery of 11 year solar activity cycle, 22 year magnetic cycle, polar field reversals, Hale’s polarity law, Joy’s law, that helped Babcock and Leighton to propose famous solar dynamo model. In more recent decades, the societal impact of the secular changes in Sun’s output has been felt in terms of solar inputs to terrestrial climate-change and space-weather hazards. Further, it has been realized that to better understand the activity phenomena such as flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) one needs synoptic observations in multiple spectral lines to enable tomographic inference of physical parameters. Currently, there are both space and ground based synoptic observatories. However, given the requirements for the long-term stability and reliability of such synoptic datasets, ground-based facilities are more preferable. Also, the ground based observatories are easy to maintain or upgrade while detailed and frequent calibrations are easily possible. The only ground-based facility that currently provides full-disk velocity and magnetic field maps of the Sun around the clock and at good cadence, is the Global Oscillations Network Group (GONG) network of National Solar Observatory (NSO) which is operational since the mid 90s. Due to its aging instrumentation, operating for nearly three decades, and new requirements to obtain multiwavelength observations, a need is felt in the solar community to build a next generation synoptic observatory network. A group of international observatories have come together under the auspices of SOLARNET program, funded by European Union (EU), to carryout a preliminary design study of such a synoptic solar observing facility called “SPRING”, which stands for Solar Physics Research Integrated Network Group. In this article we will present concept of SPRING and the optical design concept of its major instruments.ts.
We provide an update on the construction status of the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope. This 4-m diameter facility is designed to enable detection and spatial/temporal resolution of the predicted, fundamental astrophysical processes driving solar magnetism at their intrinsic scales throughout the solar atmosphere. These data will drive key research on solar magnetism and its influence on solar winds, flares, coronal mass ejections and solar irradiance variability. The facility is developed to support a broad wavelength range (0.35 to 28 microns) and will employ state-of-the-art adaptive optics systems to provide diffraction limited imaging, resolving features approximately 20 km on the Sun. At the start of operations, there will be five instruments initially deployed: Visible Broadband Imager (VBI; National Solar Observatory), Visible SpectroPolarimeter (ViSP; NCAR High Altitude Observatory), Visible Tunable Filter (VTF (a Fabry-Perot tunable spectropolarimeter); Kiepenheuer Institute for Solarphysics), Diffraction Limited NIR Spectropolarimeter (DL-NIRSP; University of Hawaii, Institute for Astronomy) and the Cryogenic NIR Spectropolarimeter (Cryo-NIRSP; University of Hawaii, Institute for Astronomy).
As of mid-2016, the project construction is in its 4th year of site construction and 7th year overall. Major milestones in the off-site development include the conclusion of the polishing of the M1 mirror by University of Arizona, College of Optical Sciences, the delivery of the Top End Optical Assembly (L3), the acceptance of the Deformable Mirror System (Xinetics); all optical systems have been contracted and are either accepted or in fabrication. The Enclosure and Telescope Mount Assembly passed through their factory acceptance in 2014 and 2015, respectively. The enclosure site construction is currently concluding while the Telescope Mount Assembly site erection is underway. The facility buildings (Utility and Support and Operations) have been completed with ongoing work on the thermal systems to support the challenging imaging requirements needed for the solar research.
Finally, we present the construction phase performance (schedule, budget) with projections for the start of early operations.
Advanced Astronomy for Heliophysics Plus (ADAHELI+) is a project concept for a small solar and space weather mission with a budget compatible with an European Space Agency (ESA) S-class mission, including launch, and a fast development cycle. ADAHELI+ was submitted to the European Space Agency by a European-wide consortium of solar physics research institutes in response to the “Call for a small mission opportunity for a launch in 2017,” of March 9, 2012. The ADAHELI+ project builds on the heritage of the former ADAHELI mission, which had successfully completed its phase-A study under the Italian Space Agency 2007 Small Mission Programme, thus proving the soundness and feasibility of its innovative low-budget design. ADAHELI+ is a solar space mission with two main instruments: ISODY+: an imager, based on Fabry–Pérot interferometers, whose design is optimized to the acquisition of highest cadence, long-duration, multiline spectropolarimetric images in the visible/near-infrared region of the solar spectrum. XSPO: an x-ray polarimeter for solar flares in x-rays with energies in the 15 to 35 keV range. ADAHELI+ is capable of performing observations that cannot be addressed by other currently planned solar space missions, due to their limited telemetry, or by ground-based facilities, due to the problematic effect of the terrestrial atmosphere.
The Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST, renamed in December 2013 from the Advanced Technology Solar
Telescope) will be the largest solar facility built when it begins operations in 2019. Designed and developed to meet the
needs of critical high resolution and high sensitivity spectral and polarimetric observations of the Sun, the observatory
will enable key research for the study of solar magnetism and its influence on the solar wind, flares, coronal mass
ejections and solar irradiance variations. The 4-meter class facility will operate over a broad wavelength range (0.38 to
28 microns, initially 0.38 to 5 microns), using a state-of-the-art adaptive optics system to provide diffraction-limited
imaging and the ability to resolve features approximately 25 km on the Sun. Five first-light instruments will be available
at the start of operations: Visible Broadband Imager (VBI; National Solar Observatory), Visible SpectroPolarimeter
(ViSP; NCAR High Altitude Observatory), Visible Tunable Filter (VTF; Kiepenheuer Institut für Sonnenphysik),
Diffraction Limited Near InfraRed SpectroPolarimeter (DL-NIRSP; University of Hawai’i, Institute for Astronomy) and
the Cryogenic Near InfraRed SpectroPolarimeter (Cryo-NIRSP; University of Hawai’i, Institute for Astronomy).
As of mid-2014, the key subsystems have been designed and fabrication is well underway, including the site
construction, which began in December 2012. We provide an update on the development of the facilities both on site at
the Haleakalā Observatories on Maui and the development of components around the world. We present the overall
construction and integration schedule leading to the handover to operations in mid 2019. In addition, we outline the
evolving challenges being met by the project, spanning the full spectrum of issues covering technical, fiscal, and
geographical, that are specific to this project, though with clear counterparts to other large astronomical construction
projects.
Liquid-crystal variable retarders (LCVRs) are an emergent technology for space-based polarimeters, following its
success as polarization modulators in ground-based polarimeters and ellipsometers. Wide-field double nematic
LCVRs address the high angular sensitivity of nematic LCVRs at some voltage regimes. We present a work
in which wide-field LCVRs were designed and built, which are suitable for wide-field-of-view instruments such
as polarimetric coronagraphs. A detailed model of their angular acceptance was made, and we validated this
technology for space environmental conditions, including a campaign studying the effects of gamma, proton
irradiation, vibration and shock, thermo-vacuum and ultraviolet radiation.
The use of Liquid Crystal Variable Retarders (LCVRs) as polarization modulators are envisaged as a promising novel
technique for space instrumentation due to the inherent advantage of eliminating the need for conventional rotary
polarizing optics hence the need of mechanisms. LCVRs is a mature technology for ground applications; they are wellknow,
already used in polarimeters, and during the last ten years have undergone an important development, driven by
the fast expansion of commercial Liquid Crystal Displays.
In this work a brief review of the state of the art of imaging polarimeters based on LCVRs is presented. All of them are
ground instruments, except the solar magnetograph IMaX which flew in 2009 onboard of a stratospheric balloon as part
of the SUNRISE mission payload, since we have no knowledge about other spaceborne polarimeters using liquid crystal
up to now. Also the main results of the activity, which was recently completed, with the objective to validate the LCVRs
technology for the Solar Orbiter space mission are described. In the aforementioned mission, LCVRs will be utilized in
the polarisation modulation package of the instruments SO/PHI (Polarimetric and Helioseismic Imager for Solar Orbiter)
and METIS/COR (Multi Element Telescope for Imaging and Spectroscopy, Coronagraph).
This paper describes the flight control software of the wave-front correction system that flew on the 2009 science
flight of the Sunrise balloon telescope. The software discussed here allowed fully automated operations of the
wave-front sensor, communications with the adaptive optics sub-system, the pointing system, the instrument
control unit and the main telescope controller. The software was developed using modern object oriented
analysis and design techniques, and consists of roughly 13.000 lines of C++ code not counting code written for
the on-board communication layer. The software operated error free during the 5.5 day flight.
In this work, it is described the Imaging Magnetograph eXperiment, IMaX, one of the three postfocal instruments of
the Sunrise mission. The Sunrise project consists on a stratospheric balloon with a 1 m aperture telescope, which will fly
from the Antarctica within the NASA Long Duration Balloon Program.
IMaX will provide vector magnetograms of the solar surface with a spatial resolution of 70 m. This data is relevant
for understanding how the magnetic fields emerge in the solar surface, how they couple the photospheric base with the
million degrees of temperature of the solar corona and which are the processes that are responsible of the generation of
such an immense temperatures.
To meet this goal IMaX should work as a high sensitivity polarimeter, high resolution spectrometer and a near
diffraction limited imager. Liquid Crystal Variable Retarders will be used as polarization modulators taking advantage of
the optical retardation induced by application of low electric fields and avoiding mechanical mechanisms. Therefore, the
interest of these devices for aerospace applications is envisaged. The spectral resolution required will be achieved by
using a LiNbO3 Fabry-Perot etalon in double pass configuration as spectral filter before the two CCDs detectors. As well
phase-diversity techniques will be implemented in order to improve the image quality.
Nowadays, IMaX project is in the detailed design phase before fabrication, integration, assembly and verification.
This paper briefly describes the current status of the instrument and the technical solutions developed to fulfil the
scientific requirements.
SUNRISE is an international project for the development, construction, and operation of a balloon-borne solar telescope with an aperture of 1 m, working in the UV/VIS spectral domain. The main scientific goal of SUNRISE is to understand the structure and dynamics of the magnetic field in the atmosphere of the Sun. SUNRISE will provide near diffraction-limited images of the photosphere and chromosphere with an unpredecented resolution down to 35 km on the solar surface at wavelengths around 220 nm. The focal-plane instrumentation consists of a polarization sensitive spectrograph, a Fabry-Perot filter magnetograph, and a phase-diverse filter imager working in the near UV. The first stratospheric long-duration balloon flight of SUNRISE is planned in Summer 2009 from the swedish ESRANGE station. SUNRISE is a joint project of the german Max-Planck-Institut fur Sonnensystemforschung (MPS), Katlenburg-Lindau, with the Kiepenheuer-Institut fur Sonnenphysik (KIS), Freiburg, Germany, the High-Altitude Observatory (HAO), Boulder, USA, the Lockheed-Martin Solar and Astrophysics Lab. (LMSAL), Palo Alto, USA, and the spanish IMaX consortium. In this paper we will present an actual update on the mission and give a brief description of its scientific and technological aspects.
The Imaging MAgnetograph eXperiment, IMaX, is one of the three postfocal instruments of the Sunrise mission. The
Sunrise project consists of a stratospheric balloon with a 1 m aperture telescope, which will fly from the Antarctica
within the NASA Long Duration Balloon Program.
IMaX should work as a diffraction limited imager and it should be capable to carry out polarization measurements
and spectroscopic analysis with high resolution (50.000-100.000 range).
The spectral resolution required will be achieved by using a LiNbO3 (z-cut) Fabry-Perot etalon in double pass
configuration as spectral filter.
Up to our knowledge, few works in the literature describe the associated problems of using these devices in an
imager instrument (roughness, off-normal incidence, polarization sensitivity...). Because of that, an extensive and
detailed analysis of etalon has been carried out. Special attention has been taken in order to determine the wavefront
transmission error produced by the imperfections of a real etalon in double pass configuration working in collimated
beam. Different theoretical models, numeric simulations and experimental data are analysed and compared obtaining a
complete description of the etalon response.
The SUNRISE balloon project is a high-resolution mission to study solar magnetic fields able to resolve the critical scale of 100 km in the solar photosphere, or about one photon mean free path. The Imaging Magnetograph eXperiment (IMaX) is one of the three instruments that will fly in the balloon and will receive light from the 1m aperture telescope of the mission. IMaX should take advantage of the 15 days of uninterrupted solar observations and the exceptional resolution to help clarifying our understanding of the
small-scale magnetic concentrations that pervade the solar surface. For this, IMaX should act as a diffraction limited imager able to carry out spectroscopic analysis with resolutions in the 50.000-100.000 range and capable to perform polarization measurements. The solutions adopted by the project to achieve all these three demanding goals are explained in this article. They include the use of Liquid Crystal Variable Retarders for the polarization modulation, one
LiNbO3 etalon in double pass and two modern CCD detectors that allow for the application of phase diversity techniques by slightly changing the focus of one of the CCDs.
SUNRISE is a balloon-borne solar telescope with an aperture of 1m, working in the UV/VIS optical domain. The main scientific goal of SUNRISE is to understand the structure and dynamics of the magnetic field in the atmosphere of the Sun. SUNRISE will provide diffraction-limited images of the photosphere and chromosphere with an unpredecented resolution down to 35km at wavelengths around 220nm. Focal-plane instruments are a spectrograph/polarimeter, a Fabry-Perot filter magnetograph, and a filter imager. The first stratospheric long-duration balloon flight of SUNRISE over Antarctica is planned in winter 2006/2007. SUNRISE is a joint project of the Max-Planck-Institut fur Sonnensystemforschung (MPS), Katlenburg-Lindau, with the
Kiepenheuer-Institut für Sonnenphysik (KIS), Freiburg, the High-Altitude Observatory (HAO), Boulder, the Lockheed-Martin Solar
and Astrophysics Lab. (LMSAL), Palo Alto, and the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife.
In this paper we will present an overview on the mission and give a
description of the instrumentation, now, at the beginning of the
hardware construction phase.
The description of the Imaging Magnetograph eXperiment
(IMaX) is presented in this contribution. This is a magnetograph
which will fly by the end of 2006 on a stratospheric balloon,
together with other instruments (to be described elsewhere).
Especial emphasis is put on the scientific requirements to
obtain diffraction-limited visible magnetograms, on the optical
design and several constraining characteristics, such as the
wavelength tuning or the crosstalk between the Stokes
parameters.
Sunrise is a light-weight solar telescope with a 1 m aperture for spectro-polarimetric observations of the solar atmosphere. The telescope is planned to be operated during a series of long-duration balloon flights in order to obtain time series of spectra and images at the diffraction-limit and to study the UV spectral region down to ~200 nm, which is not accessible from the ground.
The central aim of Sunrise is to understand the structure and dynamics of the magnetic field in the solar atmosphere. Through its interaction with the convective flow field, the magnetic field in the solar photosphere develops intense field concentrations on scales below 100 km, which are crucial for the dynamics and energetics of the whole solar atmosphere. In addition, Sunrise aims to provide information on the structure and dynamics of the solar chromosphere and on the physics of solar irradiance changes.
Sunrise is a joint project of the Max-Planck-Institut fuer Aeronomie (MPAe), Katlenburg-Lindau, with the Kiepenheuer-Institut fuer Sonnenphysik (KIS), Freiburg, the High-Altitude Observatory (HAO), Boulder, the Lockheed-Martin Solar and Astrophysics Lab. (LMSAL), Palo Alto, and the Instituto de Astrofi sica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife. In addition, there are close contacts with associated scientists from a variety of institutes.
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