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Current pattern data formats for electron beam lithography are specifically designed to meet the needs of the
VLSI industry. As a result, pattern data file size is often the limiting factor in the production of a binary computer
generated hologram and not the spatial bandwidth product. This paper explores one alternate pattern data
format that facilitates the full utilization of the e-beam machine's spatial bandwidth product without introducing
prohibitive amounts of pattern data. The pattern data format uses two well established data compression techniques
specifically tailored to remove the redundancies present in holographic fringe patterns.
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Current pattern data formats for electron beam lithography are specifically designed to meet the needs of the
VLSI industry. As a result, pattern data file size is often the limiting factor in the production of a binary computer
generated hologram and not the spatial bandwidth product. This paper explores one alternate pattern data
format that facilitates the full utilization of the e-beam machine's spatial bandwidth product without introducing
prohibitive amounts of pattern data. The pattern data format uses two well established data compression techniques
specifically tailored to remove the redundancies present in holographic fringe patterns.
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A new type of diffractive optical bar code (DOBC) is proposed. Rather than scan the bar pattern directly,
the DOBC is coherently illuminated and the first diffraction order is sensed. The spacing between the bars is
chosen so that the thresholded diffraction pattern yields a specified binary code. Two approaches are investigated
for synthesis of the DOBC; phase shaping and a gradient-based, nonlinear, constrained optimization technique.
The two design methods are compared based on numerical results; and the validity of the overall design approach
is verified by optically sensing the diffraction patterns for a number of fabricated DOBC's.
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In various applications of classical and holographic interferometry it is
necessary to reconstruct the phase difference (PD) of interfering light beams
all along the image plane in order to give a quantitative description of such
object parameters as the refraction index, thickness, displacement, amplitude
of oscillation, etc. At this the errors may be caused by speckle noise, noise
of the registrating apparatus and other ones. These noises together with the
errors of the used computing methods result in an inaccurate determination of
PD. Taking into account the fact that in some cases (e.g., at certain
correlations of displacement vectors of the object points with the geometry
of holographic scheme in holographical interferometry) even negligible errors
in obtained values of PD lead to significiant inaccuracies in the searched
parameters one may conclude that the choice of algorithms enuring the
increase of the accuracy of the PD reconstruction is very important
In the present paper two interpolation methods used at PD reconstruction
out of two-dimensional interferometric images with a complex structure of
fringes are developed. A comparative analysis of the accuracy of obtained
results is also done.
The following consideration is carried out at the example of the
holographic interferogram of a diffuse scattering object performing forced
sinusoidal oscillations, obtained b the time averaging method. However the
above-mentioned methods and obtained results are applicable for a wide range
of interferometric images.
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The optimization and realization of the relief structure for
binary diffractive elements is implemented through a computer
program which has been named DIFFOPTRAN. The program's input can
consist of the required phase profile generated by some external
means, such as CODEV, or the user can select analytical forms for
the various input parameters, e.g. planar or curved surfaces,
incident beam profile, or phase functions describing gratings or
other optical elements. DIFFOPTRAN is capable of propagating
gaussian or supergaussian beams through the optical element in its
original description as conventional refractive elements, or it can
perform conversion of the input element into a binary diffractive
element and then propagate a beam through it. The propagation can
be done as a function of various parameters. The efficiency, beam
sizes and centroid postions are computed in the observation plane.
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Computer simulations are used to investigate the effects of vlsi fabrication errors on the efficiency
of kinoforms. Fabrication and error models are described. Simulation results are presented and
discussed.
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Several arguments are made for using higher-order, rather than first-order, kinoforms
for producing low f-number diffractive lenses. It is shown that improved
efficiency can be achieved with higer-order kinoforms when the f-number of the lens
is very low. A procedure for the fabrication of higher-order kinoforms is also presented.
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Binary optics represents a new and developing technology for the reduction of aberrations through the diffractive
as opposed to the refractive properties of light. In this paper we consider the aberrations introduced in a simple focussing
system when a cylindrical element is placed at the front of the system. We discuss the conventional optical solutions to
reduce the aberrations as well as holographic element solutions. The primary tool used in this study is a large commercial
optical design and analysis computer program.
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Multilayer thin-film calculations are used to assess the reflectance of volume phase reflection holograms at
harmonics of the expected playback frequency. Significant harmonic reflectance is found even when the profile of the
local dieleciric constant is a pure sine wave.
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We present two holographic systems that convert conventionnal gaussian laser
beams into uniform ones. One system works at 514 nm, the other at 1300 nm.
These systems are the illustration of a procedure which allows the
manufacturing of highly diffractive HOE's, on dichromated gelatin, for any
optical function and for any wavelength.
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A Laser Writer system for recording centro-symmetric patterns in photoresist has been
developed as an alternative method for binary optics mask and component fabrica.-
tion.This system is capable of generating binary amplitude patterns with linewidths
below 1 tm and with a positional accuracy of less than 0.ljim on up to 3 in. diameter
planar substrates. The measured wavefront error and diffraction efficiency of a directwrite
two-phase-level F/10 lens confirm that high quality components can be fabricated
quickly, easily, and at low cost.
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Methods for obtaining low noise, straight, uniform fringes with a grating interferometer are described. It is shown
that straight, uniform fringes can be obtained exactly, even when the interfering beams are not collimated, but are
diverging.
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Novel electron-beam lithography techniques for fabricating micro Fresnel lens are proposed. A high
performance blazed-micro Fresnel lens with a diffraction efficiency of 65% and an RMS wavefront aberration
ofO.03A was obtained.
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The curved fringes that exist in spherical diffractive lenses present problems in terms of the computational cost of fracturing
the curved fringes into e-beam acceptable shapes, and the fact that the resulting minimum fringe width is limited to several ebeam
spot widths. Using orthogonal cylindrical diffractive lenses (OCDL), both of these problems can be overcome because
the e-beam data is made up entirely of rectangles. OCDLs also allow different focal lengths in the X and Y directions for new
applications. The design and fabrication of OCDLs is presented, along with experimental results.
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We have produced a high efficient phase-only hologram, of which refractive index distribution is
modified by using an ion exchange method. This paper describes an optimum condition of the phase
profile of the hologram. In computer simulation, ion density and phase profile generated by ion
exchanging is calculated. The diffractiion patterns of the gratings are calculated based on phase
distribution data of the gratings. An optimum phase distribution is estimated. The optimum condition is
verified experimentally.
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A significant improvement in the performance of position tuned volume reflection gratings in Dichromated Gelatin (
DCG) for fibre based applications in the 1200-l600nm range is reported. Spectral widths of less than 5nm at the Full
Width at Half Maximum, have been obtained over the whole tuning range, with high peak efficiences for DCG films of
410 microns in thickness. This performance represents an effective utilisation of the film volume of 60 -70%.
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The design rules for polarisation independent diffraction gratings operating in the 1 .2 - 1.6 pm spectral
window are discussed. A grating design is described and experimental results presented for its performance.
The grating exhibits a polarisation independent diffraction efficiency in excess of 90 % across the entire
region of interest.
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New modulated error diffusion CGHs (computer generated holograms) for optical computing are
considered. Specific attention is given to their use in optical matrix-vector, associative processor,
neural net and optical interconnection architectures. We consider lensless CGH systems (many
CGHs use an external Fourier transform (FT) lens), the Fresnel sampling requirements, the effects of
finite CGH apertures (sample and hold inputs), dot size correction (for laser recorders), and new
applications for this novel encoding method (that devotes attention to quantization noise effects).
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A traditional MSF only possesses the discriminating ability of shift invariance of patterns when
it is used for pattern recognition and can't recognize patterns with rotation. To overcome this problem,
a target pattern was replaced by one of its circular harmonic components when we select the reference
pattern, i.e., the MSF should be made from the conjugate of the Fourier spectrum of its circular harmonic
components.
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Light weight and compactness are critical requirements in the design of many optical
systems and the use of holographic optics often provides an ideal solution to the size and
weight problem. In this paper, the design and fabrication of a wide field-of-view (FOV)
holographic lens for use in a laser receiver are described. The holographic lens is designed to
image incominlaser radiation at 850nm onto a solid state detector array over a field of view
of x (±26.7 in the diagonal direction). Over the limiting aperture, the effective
f/number of the holographic lens for each incident angle is f/2.5. Over the entire lens
aperture, however, the f/number of the holographic lens is f/0.7 in order to accommodate the
53.4 FOV. Experimental results obtained with the holographic wide FOV laser receiver are
presented. The location of the focussed spot can be determined to within one pixel of the
detector array, providing the laser receiver with an angular resolution better than 1 mrad.
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The output of a laser diode typically has a Gaussian intensity profile and is highly divergent in one axis.
The Gaussian intensity profile causes side-lobes when diodes are used to form arrays. If the intensity
profile can be changed to a uniform profile in one axis, an increase in central lobe power of 10% can be
achieved. We have developed a single optical element which performs both the intensity redistribution and
collimation of linear arrays of laser diodes.
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An improved computer-generated hologram recording technique for 12x128-pixel binary spatial light modulators is
presented. The method is based on a diagonal coding previously introduced, but instead of using 4x4 supercells as in the
previous case, the size of the supercell has been reduced to 2x2 pixels. Experimental results from computer simulations
show that high-speed rotation-invariant recognition of simple shapes is possible with such holograms.
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Using a hydrogenated amorphous silicon as a photoconductor, the relatively new class
of a light addressed photoconductor and SmC* liquid crystal spatial light modulator
named LAPS-SLM is presented. The operation and characteristics of LAPS-SLM without
using a dielectric mirror is reported.
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A new algorithm of the feedback joint transform correlator ( FJTC ) was proposed. The
system is made by using the ferroelectric liquid crystal spatial light modulator named
LAPS-SLM. The FJTC features excellent pattern recognition characteristics and pattern
associative characteristics, compared to conventional joint transform correlators ( JTC).
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The quantization effects of the joint power spectrum on the performance of both binary
joint transform correlator (JTC) and the conventional linear JTC are investigated. Computer
simulation is used to determine the correlation peak intensity, peak to sidelobe ratio, and the
correlation width for various quantization levels. We show that in binary JTC, a capture
effect for the number of the quantization levels exists. No correlation signal is produced
when the joint power spectrum is quantized below a certain number of quantization levels.
For the quantization levels of the joint power spectrum above this capture level, the
correlation performance is comparable to that of the unquantized JTC. For conventional
linear JTC, the effects of the quantization is to deteriorate the correlation performance
steadily.
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A nonlinear filter based image correlator is investigated. The linear filter is expressed
as the real part of the conventional matched filter. This baseband function contains the
amplitude and phase of the Fourier transform of the reference signal. The real baséband
filter function is then applied to a nonlinear device to produce the nonlinear filter function.
Analytical expressions for the nonlinear filter are provided. The effects of the nonlinear
transfer characteristics on the correlation signals at the output plane are investigated. The
correlation signals are determined in terms of the nonlinear characteristics used to transform
the filter. We show that the nonlinear filter results is a sum of infinite harmonic terms.
Each harmonic term is envelope modulated due to the nonlinear characteristics of the
device, and phase modulated by m times the phase modulation of the linear filter function.
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A model to design diffractive optical elements is described. It allows a prediction of the theoretical limit
of the diffraction efficiency and the development and characterization of calculation methods.
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Phase-only Fourier gratings have been used as beam combiners and beam splitters for applications
including imaging [1-3], coherent communications [4,5], and optical computing [6-12]. The design of
phase-only Fourier gratings, also referred to as Dammann gratings and as kinoforms, is reviewed in this
work. The purpose of the review is to distinguish between the different representations presented for such
gratings, the different philosophies used in the design, and the different algorithms used to perform the
design [10-16].
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We examine the role of processing errors on diffraction efficiency of binary optical elements and the validity of the Fourier
model to predict diffraction efficiency. We show that mask alignment error can significantly degrade efficiency. Models based
on the Fourier theory can adequately predict both the magnitude of diffraction efficiency and its sensitivity to processing errors
for optically slow elements (f/b). For optically fast elements (
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Three principle issues in computer-generated hologram (CGH) design are (1) the data that
constitute the hologram, (2) the coding used to construct the hologram from the data, and (3) the
technology used to fabricate the hologram. Fabrication technology influences both the nature (data) and
form (coding) of the hologram and ranges from high space-bandwidth photoresist holograms exposed using
c-beam milled binary masks to conventional photo-reproduced images of gray-scale and binary holograms
and, finally, to optically- and electronically-addressable spatial-light modulators (SLMs).
The design of binary amplitude Fourier holograms for display on a magneto-optic SLM (MOSLM) is
considered in this work. The binary nature of the device provides two options for coding, either
cell-oriented coding or point-oriented coding. Point-oriented coding is discussed herein; the MOSLM
display of cell-oriented holograms has been reported [1]. Further, techniques that have been developed for
generating point-oriented binary amplitude Fourier hologram data include a direct binary search (DBS)
technique [2] and an iterative Fourier transform {3,4] technique. The iterative technique is discussed herein
as a means for designing high diffraction efficiency holograms. The MOSLM display of DBS designed
holograms has also been reported [2].
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Aholographic combiner performing as a transmission combiner, consisting of two reflection holograms sandwiched
together, has been developed for display applications which may benefit in packaging and/or performance due to the
transmission geometry. The SRH combiner benefits from the reflection holographic components to reduce the spectral
bandwidth to less than 20 nm. Predicted performance of the SRH versus simple transmission holograms, experimental
data on the SRH, and practical display applications are presented.
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Consider the whole class of holographic optical elements which either contain pictorial image information or have the
ability to modify wavefronts. Even after many years of development, there are pitifully few marketable applications.
The visionary promises that holography would create a revolution in the optics and display industries have not been
fulfilled. Time has shown that, while it was relatively simple to dream up ideas for myriad applications, these ideas have
generally not moved beyond laboratory demonstrations. Exceptions are a few items such as optical elements for
supermarket scanners, head-up displays and laser diode lenses.
This paper addresses:
1. The many promises of holographic elements
2. The difficulties of practical implementation
3. A reassessment of research and development priorities
To give simple examples of these points, they are discussed mainly as they apply to one type of holographic
application: automotive displays. These familiar displays give a clear example of both the promises and difficulties that
holographic elements present in the world of high volume, low-costproduction.
Automotive displays could be considered as a trivial application alongside more interesting fundamental research
programs or high cost, sophisticated military applications. One might even consider "trivial" automotive displays to be a
disreputable subject for serious researchers. The case is made that exactly the opposite is true.
The resources for large scale development exist only in a healthy commercial market. An example is the Japanese
funding of high technology through commercial product development. This has been shown to be effective in the
development of other technologies, such as ceramics, semiconductors, solar cells and composite materials.
In like manner, if holography is to become an economically important technology, more and more competent
researchers must start looking outside the universities and military laboratories for support. They must involve themselves
in some of the "trivial" commercial applications.
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It is becoming more common to include HOE's in an optical system. This imposes
some important problems for optical designers. In this paper, we will mainly discuss
analyses and evaluations of an optical system which contains general HOE's and
only describe briefly the generation of the HOE. A general HOE can be defined as
a hologram whose object beam can assume any arbitrary wavefront. The general
approach, by all known commercial softwares, is to model the required hologram being
formed with simple spherical waves. The wavefront of the object wave is then modified
by a phase function represented by a high order polynomials. The coefficients are then
optimize to achieve the required results. This is adequate for most applications. If the
required hologram does not resemble simple spherical waves nor has the symmetry, a
large number of terms may be needed for an accurate representation. Our approach
is to use exact ray-tracing to represent a general hologram. This was carried out
with a commercial software, Super-Oslo, which, by the way, has not yet incorporated
the phase modification feature. Since the Super Oslo can accommodate multiple
configurations and also since it has the Star Command Language (SCL), we can
either use a separate configuration or dynamically change the main configuration to
define the hologram. The hologram itself is a user defined surface for which you can
write your own program. Therefore the definition of the hologram can include any
optical surfaces which can be handled by the software. The hologram can also be on
any surface as long as you can write the program for it. The system design, analysis
and evaluation can then be run by the SCL. We will use the Holographic Optical Head
(HOH) as our example. The HOH includes two spherical lenses and two holograms.
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We demonstrate two-dimensional optical wide angle beam steering by incorporating two steering techniques in
tandem. The first technique is translation of two microlens arrays configured as a telescope array. The microlens
translation produces wide angle steering to discrete angles. The second technique is optical phased array steering
using a nematic liquid crystal array, which provides access to a continuous range of angles. By translating both
microlens arrays of the 10 x 10 telescope array, we demonstrate steering to maintaining a peak irradiance
within 3.6 dB of the on-axis peak irradiance.
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Methods for designing substrate-mode holographic (SMH) optical elements are discussed in detail. These
include techniques which account for the thickness change of a volume material during processing, and construction
and reconstruction at different wavelengths. A method to reduce the angular sensitivity of these elements is also
presented. Experimental results for components formed in dichromated gelatin with diffraction efficiency exceeding
95% and a FWHM (full angular width of the efficiency at half maximum) of more than 5° are given. Results for
cascaded grating pairs are also discussed.
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