A time-of-flight measurement-based three-dimensional (3D) profiler system employing a lightweight scanning system is demonstrated. To reduce the weight of the scanning system, and thereby achieve faster scanning speeds, two Fresnel prism sheets were employed as the scanning optics and installed to work as a pair of Risley prisms. Each Fresnel prism sheet has a diameter of 102 mm and mass of 15 g, which is about 12 times lighter than ordinary bulky prism. By scanning the laser beam with the developed scanning system, a 3D point cloud image of a target object located 8 m away could be successfully obtained. The image distortion was removable by correcting six geometrical parameters of the scanner using a simple optimization algorithm. It was confirmed by the experiment that once the distortion has been corrected, it is valid for other scanning speeds (and trajectories), enabling 3D profile measurements that do not require postprocessing of measured data. Measurement results for a standard target composed of square extrusions were in good agreement with the reference values, with deviations of <1 mm.
The uncertainties of measuring the geometrical thickness and refractive index of silicon wafers were evaluated. Both quantities of the geometrical thickness and refractive index were obtained using the previously proposed method based on spectral domain interferometry using the optical comb of a femtosecond pulse laser. The primary uncertainty factor was derived from the determination process of the optical path differences (OPDs) including the phase calculation, measurement repeatability, refractive index of air, and wavelength variation. The uncertainty for the phase calculation contains a Fourier transform in order to obtain the dominant periodic signal as well as an inverse Fourier transform with windowed filtering in order to calculate the phase value of the interference signal. The uncertainty for the measurement repeatability was estimated using the standard deviation of the measured optical path differences. During the experiments, the uncertainty of the refractive index of air should be considered for wavelengths in air because light travels through air. Because the optical path difference was determined based on the wavelength in use, the variation of the wavelength could also contribute to the overall measurement uncertainty. In addition, the uncertainty of the wavelength depends on the wavelength measurement accuracy of the sampling device, i.e. the optical spectrum analyzer. In this paper, the details on the uncertainty components are discussed, and future research for improving the performance of the measurement system is also proposed based on the uncertainty evaluation.
We describe a method to simultaneously measure both thickness profile and refractive index distribution of a silicon wafer based on a lateral scanning of the wafer itself. By using dispersive interferometer principle based on a broadband source, which is a femtosecond pulse laser with 100 nm spectral bandwidth, both thickness profile and refractive index distribution can be measured at the same time using a single scanning operation along a lateral direction. The proposed measurement system was tested using an approximately 90 mm range with a 0.2 mm step along the center-line, except for the rim area in a ϕ100 silicon wafer. As a result, the thickness profile was determined to have a wedge-like shape with an approximately 2 μm difference at an averaged thickness of 478.03 μm. Also, the mean value of the refractive index distribution was 3.603, with an rms value of about 0.001. In addition, the measurement uncertainty of the thickness profile was evaluated by considering two uncertainty components that are related to the scanning operation, like the yaw motion of the motorized stage and the long-term stability of an optical path difference in an air path. The measurement reliability of both the thickness profile and refractive index distribution can be increased through several methods such as an analysis of the correlation between the thickness profile and the refractive index distribution and a comparative measurement using a contact-type method; these potential methods are the subject of our future work.
We have designed and constructed the calibration system of line standards such as tape and rule for the secondary
calibration laboratories. The system consists of the main body with linear stage and linear encoder, the optical
microscope with digital camera, and the computer.
The base of the system is a aluminum profile with 2.9 m length, 0.09 m height and 0.18 m width. The linear stage and
the linear encoder are fixed on the aluminum profile. The micro-stage driven by micrometer is fixed on the carriage of
the long linear stage, and the optical microscope with digital camera and the tablet PC are on the this stage. The linear
encoder counts the moving distance of the linear stage with resolution of 1 μm and its counting value is transferred to the
tablet PC. The image of the scale mark of the tape is captured by the CCD camera of optical microscope and transferred
to the PC through USB interface. The computer automatically determines the center of the scale mark by image
processing technique and at the same time reads the moving distance of the linear stage. As a result, the computer can
calculate the interval between the scale marks of the tape. In order to achieve the high accuracy, the linear encoder
should be calibrated using the laser interferometer or the rigid steel rule. This calibration data of the linear encoder is
stored at the computer and the computer corrects the reading value of the linear encoder.
In order to determine the center of the scale mark, we use three different algorithms. First, the image profile over
specified threshold level is fitted in even order polynomial and the axis of the polynomial is used as the center of the line.
Second, the left side and right side areas at the center of the image profile are calculated so that two areas are same.
Third, the left and right edges of the image profile are determined at every intensity level of the image and the center of
the graduation is calculated as an average of the centers of the left and right edges at all intensity levels.
The system can measure the line standards up to 2.5 m. The expanded uncertainty for the tape calibration is U = [(0.04)2+ (0.015•L)2]1/2 mm, where L is measured length of the tape or rule in meters. At this system, the long distance
measuring instruments such as ultrasonic distance meter or laser displacement sensor can be also calibrated.
A laser radar (LADAR) system with a Geiger mode avalanche photodiode (GAPD) is used extensively due to its high
detection sensitivity. However, this system requires a certain amount of time to receive subsequent signals after detecting
the previous one. This dead time, usually 10 ns to 10 μs, is determined by the material composition of the detector and
the design of the quenching circuits. Therefore, when we measure objects in close proximity to other objects along the
optical axis using the LADAR system with GAPD, it is difficult to separate them clearly owing to the dead time problem.
One example for that is a case of hidden objects behind partially transparent blinds. In this paper, we suggested a
modified LADAR system with GAPD to remove the dead time problem by adopting an additional linear mode avalanche
photodiode (LAPD) as a complementary detector. Because the LAPD does not have dead time while still maintaining
relatively low detection sensitivity, the proposed system can measure an object placed within the dead time with high
detection sensitivity. Light is emitted from the pulsed laser of a light source and is delivered into a fast photodiode to
generate a start signal. Most of laser pulses are directed onto the target and scattered from the surfaces of targets. The
scattered light in the field-of-view of the system is divided by a polarizing beam splitter, after which it becomes incident
to two different types of APDs, the GAPD and the LAPD. The GAPD receives the signals from the target with high
sensitivity, and the signals scattered in the dead time zone are then detected by the LAPD. The obtained signals are
analyzed at the same time. In this way, the signals scattered from objects placed within the dead time can be
distinguished clearly.
We propose a microscopic system which could be applied to three-dimensional surface profile measurement. In the
system, a two-dimensional pinhole array is imaged onto the surface under measurement by an objective lens. These spots
act as discrete object points which are then imaged to the CCD chip by the microscope which contains two orthogonal
cylindrical lenses. Due to the astigmatism of the two cylindrical lenses, the shape of the image of object points on the
CCD camera becomes oval unless the object point is located at a position which satisfies the best imaging condition. By
calculating the focus error signal using the intensities measured at a group of CCD cells, the information on the distance
of the corresponding object point could be found out.
The basic concept of the system was checked by computer simulation on the point spread function of various object
points. A preliminary measurement system which consists of the same optical components used in the computer
simulation has been set up for verification of the idea. Since this system requires only one image to analyze the surface
profile, it is a one-shot measurement system, and is insensitive to environmental noises such as mechanical vibration.
We developed a gauge block interferometer which utilizes the frequency tunable laser diodes as both light sources and
phase shifters of a phase shifting interferometer. By using a confocal Fabry-Perot cavity made of ultra low expansion
glass, and linearly modulating the laser diode current, the laser frequency could be injection locked to the resonant
modes of the Fabry-Perot cavity consecutively. These equal spaced frequencies produce equally phase shifted
interferometric images which are ideal to be analyzed by the Carré algorithm. Two frequency scanning lasers at the
wavelengths of 636 nm and 657 nm are used as light sources for the gauge block interferometer. The system takes only
10 ms for a single measurement which acquires two sets of four equally phase shifted images with 640×480 pixels in
size. Central lengths of gauge blocks are measured by using the phase shifting interferometry and exact fraction method.
The performance of the high speed interferometer could be checked by comparing the measurement results on the same
gauge block made by two different methods. Two results agreed well within the measurement uncertainty.
A total integrated scattering (TIS) system consisting of an integrating sphere has been developed in KRISS for the
purpose of measuring the effective roughness amplitude of gauge blocks and platens, which are necessary for the
correction of phase shift due to roughness difference between gauge block and platen, in the calibration of gauge blocks
by optical interferometry. Details on the TIS system and its calibration by using two different methods are described. The
uncertainty of the effective roughness amplitude measurement by using the TIS system is evaluated to be 2 nm (k=1).
This paper presents the design and fabrication of a precision dual level stage composing a dimensional metrological
system for large range surface topography, such as mask patterns for lithography, fine artifacts on a semi-conductor
wafer and micro roughness on a large specular surface. The stage was configured as dual level, a fine stage on a coarse
stage, to obtain large moving range and high resolution simultaneously. In the design of the coarse stage, we focused on
a simple structure with low profile to achieve insensitivity to vibration and high accuracy. Therefore, a high quality flat
surface plate was used as the reference plane of the coarse stage's movement, instead of a conventional simple stacking
of two long stroke one-axis stages. The surface plate also has a role of metrological frame for very low thermal
expansion coefficient and its size is 800 mm × 800 mm. The coarse stage is guided horizontally by a cross structure with
two precision straight bars perpendicularly linked and vertically by the surface plate. The sliding pads made of PTFE are
used to guarantee the smooth motion of the coarse stage for both horizontal and vertical directions. The fine stage fixed
on the coarse stage generates five-axis fine motion, such as two-axis in-plane translation, one-axis in-plane and two-axis
out-of-plane rotation. The fine stage is composed of flexure guided structures and actuated by five PZTs. The developed
dual level stage can achieve a large range of 200 mm × 200 mm and a nanometric resolution simultaneously. Its
movement is monitored and controlled using a five-axis laser interferometer system to be applied to a dimensional
metrology having direct meter-traceability.
The pitch and orthogonality of two-dimensional (2D) gratings have been calibrated by using an optical diffractometer (OD) and a metrological atomic force microscope (MAFM). Gratings are commonly used as a magnification standard for a scanning probe microscope (SPM) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Thus, to establish the meter-traceability in nano-metrology using SPM/SEM, it is important to certify the pitch and orthogonality of 2D gratings accurately. ODs and MAFMs are generally used as effective metrological instruments for the calibration of gratings in nanometer range. Since two methods have different metrological characteristics, they give complementary information for each other. ODs can measure only mean pitch value of grating with very low uncertainty, but MAFMs can obtain individual pitch value and local profile as well as mean pitch value, although they have higher uncertainty. Two kinds of 2D gratings, each with the nominal pitch of 700 nm and 1000 nm, were measured, and the uncertainties of calibrated values were evaluated. We also investigated the contribution of each uncertainty source to the combined standard uncertainty, and discussed the causes of main ones. The expanded uncertainties (k = 2) of calibrated pitch values were less than 0.05 nm and 0.5 nm for the OD and the MAFM, and the calibration results were coincident with each other within the expanded uncertainty of the MAFM.
A compact linear and angular displacement measurement device was developed by combining a Michelson interferometer in Twyman-Green configuration and an autocollimator to characterize the movement of a precision stage. A precision stage usually has 6 degrees of freedom of motion (3 linear and 3 angular displacements) due to the parasitic motions, thus linear and angular displacement should be measured simultaneously for the complete evaluation of precision stage. A Michelson interferometer and an autocollimator are typical devices for measuring linear and angular displacement respectively. By controlling the polarization of reflected beam from the moving mirror of the interferometer, some parts of light are retro-reflected to the light source and the reflected beam can be used for angle measurement. Because the interferometer and the autocollimator have the same optic axis, the linear and angular displacements are measured at the same position of the moving mirror, and the moving mirror can be easily and precisely aligned to be orthogonal to the optic axis by monitoring the autocollimator's signal. A single mode polarization maintaining optical fiber is used to deliver the laser beam to the device, and all components except the moving mirror are fixed with bonding to achieve high thermal and mechanical stability. The autocollimator part was designed to have the angular resolution of 0.1" and the measurement range of 60". The nonlinearity error of interferometer was minimized by trimming the gain and offset of the photodiode signals.
Precision carbon nanotube (P-CNT) tip for atomic force microscope (AFM) was fabricated where CNT orientation and length is controlled within the precision of 1 degree and 300 nm, respectively. The orientation, diameter and length of CNT tip are crucial factors for faithful profiling of surface patterns. With a nano-manipulation while viewing scanning electron microscope live image followed by focused ion beam process, P-CNT tip could be made. P-CNT tip acts as a normal CNT tip without FIB process. Further it maintains the elasticity. P-CNT tip can, in principle, enter the trench or hole less than 70 nm, which is impossible with the current state-of-the-art silicon tip for CD-AFM. Flaring the CNT end would potentially make possible the AFM-based sub-70 nm CD metrology for these structures.
12 Current technological development toward miniaturization requires smaller components. These components usually generate complex multi-DOF motions other than simple 1-DOF mission. Therefore it is essential to develop measurement methodology for 6-DOF motions. In this paper, a new 6-DOF measurement system for milli-structure is presented. This methodology basically employs the Optical Beam Deflection Method with a diffraction grating. A laser beam is emitted toward the diffraction grating which could be attached on the surface of a milli-structure and the incident ray is diffracted in several directions. Among these diffracted beams, 0th and +/- 1th order diffracted rays are detected by 4 Quadrant Photodiodes. From coordinate values from each detector, we can get information for 6-DOF motions with linearization method. Required resolutions for milli- structure measurement are sub-micrometer in translation and arcsec in rotation. Experimental results indicate that proposed system has possibility to satisfy this requirement. This method can be applied to measurement of various applications such as arm head of HDD, micro positioning stages.
Point triangulation probes (PTBs) fall into a general category of noncontact height or displacement measurement devices. PTBs are widely used for their simple structure, high resolution, and long operating range. However, there are several factors that must be taken into account in order to obtain high accuracy and reliability; measurement errors from inclinations of an object surface, probe signal fluctuations generated by speckle effects, power variation of a light source, electronic noises, and so on. In this paper, we propose a novel signal processing algorithm, named as EASDF (expanded average square difference function), for a newly designed PTB which is composed of an incoherent source (LED), a line scan array detector, a specially selected diffuse reflecting surface, and several optical components. The EASDF, which is a modified correlation function, is able to calculate displacement between the probe and the object surface effectively even if there are inclinations, power fluctuations, and noises.
Multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) displacement measurement systems are needed in many application fields; precision machine control, precision assembly, vibration analysis, and so on. This paper presents a new MDOF displacement measurement system that is composed of a laser diode (LD), two position- sensitive detectors (PSDs), and a conventional diffraction grating. It utilizes typical features of a diffraction grating to obtain the information of MDOF displacement. MDOF displacement is calculated from the independent coordinate values of the diffracted ray spots on the PSDs. Forward and inverse kinematic problems were solved to compute the MDOF displacement of an object. Experimental results show maximum absolute errors of less than plus or minus 10 micrometers in translation and plus or minus 30 arcsecs in rotation.
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