<p> This course provides an introductory to intermediate level overview of the theory and operation of CCD and CMOS image sensors with system design and application considerations in a half-day course. It has been updated to place more emphasis on CMOS and system design considerations with less emphasis on CCDs. A background in solid state electronics and physics is helpful but not necessary. </p> <p> Topics include: </p> <br/> Basics of image capture/formation: photon capture, charge generation, movement and measurement. </p> <p> Sensor architectures & operation, CCDs: full frame, frame transfer, interline and CMOS: Rolling Shutter, Progressive Scan and Global Snap Shutter. Frontside vs backside illumination. Operational differences between CCD and CMOS sensors. </p> <p> Primary noise sources: signal shot noise, fixed pattern noise, thermal noise sources (dark shot noise, dark fixed pattern noise) and read noise plus CMOS random telegraph noise and image lag. </p> <p> Sensor/Camera performance characterization and noise and management: quantum efficiency, Fe55 Soft xray characterization / sensor diffusion MTF assessment/optimization, photon transfer analysis, SNR optimization. </p> <p> System design considerations: tradeoffs among pixel count, frame rate, pixel bit depth, sensor data bandwidth, electrical interfaces, frame buffering and network interface bandwidth. </p> <p> Cost considerations: sensor size, imaging optics, shuttering, cooling. </p> <p> Sensor manufacturing: die size vs lithography type vs wafer size. Substrate electrical properties, Backside illumination fabrication differences. Laminated stacked die architectures. </p> <p> Imaging System Design Examples: Matching a camera to a target: specifying sensor type, pixel size, field of view, lens focal length/focal ratio, frame rate/exposure time, video vs still. Networked video camera high level design example using FPGA plus network interface: key elements, sample design calculations. </p>

Photon transfer (PT) is a popular and essential characterization standard employed in the design, operation, characterization, calibration, optimization, specification and application of digital scientific and commercial camera systems. The PT user friendly technique is based on only two measurements- average signal and rms noise which together produce a multitude of important data products in evaluating digital camera systems (most notably CCD and CMOS). PT is applicable to all imaging disciplines. Design and fabrication process engineers developing imagers rely heavily on PT data products in determining discrete performance parameters such as quantum efficiency (QE), quantum yield, read noise, full well, dynamic range, nonlinearity, fixed pattern noise, V/e- conversion gain, dark current , image, etc.. Camera users routinely use the PT technique to determine system level performance parameters to convert relative measurements into absolute electron and photon units, offset correction, flat field and image S/N, ADC quantizing noise, optimum encoding, minimum detectable luminance, operating temperature to remove dark current , reliability, stability, etc. PT is also the first go/no-go test performed to determine the health of new camera system and/or detector as well as provide a power tool in trouble shooting problems. This course will review these aspects and many others offered by PT.

This course provides a brief review of general theory, architecture and operation of CCD and CMOS imagers. In depth discussions then focus on four key operational imager features which collectively limit overall sensor performance (i.e., charge generation, charge collection, charge transfer and charge readout). The course will show how these parameters govern most measurements such as quantum efficiency (QE), modulation transfer function (MTF), charge transfer efficiency (CTE) and read noise measurements. Absolute test tools are presented that measure these characteristics. We will review at some length the ‘photon transfer technique’ which has become an indispensable standard test tool for the imaging community in evaluating the quality of a camera system and calibration and optimization needs. We present correlated double sampling (CDS) which is a mandatory signal processing method for imagers that delivers ultra low noise performance. The course will also take a quick look at future R&D imaging trends and new applications.<i></i>

This course will detail advances in pixel count (arrays as large as 10K by 10K), quantum efficiency (spectral coverage of 1 to 11,000 A), charge transfer efficiency (99.9999% efficient per pixel transfer), read noise (less than 1 e-rms), large dynamic range (greater than 1,000,000), and high-speed operation (diffusion limited). Topics that will be discussed and presented include technologies used to achieve such high levels of performance; IR, visible, UV, EUV, and x-ray applications; general CCD theory, operation and pixel architectures; photoelectric effect and operation of the buried channel MOS capacitor; CCD defects, shorts, device yield, packaging and cost; different CCD architectures; transport systems; commercial versus scientific applications; photon transfer, lux transfer, x-ray transfer, flat-fielding and absolute photon standard techniques in measuring signal-to-noise, linearity, full well, read noise, dynamic range, QE sensitivity, dark current and fixed pattern noise; performance limits behind charge generation, charge collection, charge transfer, and charge measurement; carrier diffusion and its effect on the modulation transfer function; fabrication technologies including MPP, notch, virtual-phase, thin gate, transparent gate, backside illumination, AR coatings and anti-blooming; CTE traps, problems and solutions; signal processing techniques and theory used to achieve sub electron noise performance; grounding and shielding techniques for low noise/high-speed operation; on-chip noise sources; off-chip noise sources; CCD and camera optimization; radiation and ESD damage consequences that lead to performance degradation.

This course explains the remarkable characteristics of charge-coupled devices (CCDs) used in imaging systems. The course details advances in pixel count (arrays as large as 9K by 9K), quantum efficiency (spectral coverage of 1 to 11,000 ?), charge transfer efficiency (99.9999% efficient per pixel transfer), read noise (less than 1 e- rms), and ultra-large dynamic range (greater than 106). The course reviews the CCD technologies responsible for these high levels of performance.

This course presents the CCD Transfer method used in standardizing, optimizing, and specifying performance for digital CCD and cameras. CCD transfer curves for optimum clocking, noise, full well, signal-to-noise, pixel non-uniformity, quantum and charge collection and transfer efficiency, transfer rate, residual image, anti-blooming, radiation damage, and signal processing timing are discussed.

This course reviews the design and application of scientific CCD imaging cameras. The course will present several camera configurations that cover a wide range of applications including UV and x-ray imaging cameras.