Several analytical models have been suggested to describe the changes in the electromechanical properties of Cellular Polypropylene (Cell-PP) due to charging. However, there is a limited number of studies considering the non-linear dependence of the piezoelectric coefficient d33 on the mechanical load applied. One of the main reasons for this nonlinearity is the stiffness of the film that increases proportionally to the applied mechanical load. Moreover the size and shape distribution of the enclosed voids is an important determinant of the electromechanical properties.
In this work, the geometry of a 3D model of Cell-PP is designed on the basis of analytical Splines. Both the manufacturing procedure of Cell-PP films (bi-axial stretching) and the pressure expansion treatment were simulated in order to account for a realistic void distribution. The FEA is done on a 2D cross-section of the modelled film. The modelled mechanical response is analysed based on increasing mechanical load applied. The load-deflection curves obtained from the analysis are then compared to the experimental results acquired via Dynamical Mechanical Analyzer (DMA) to validate the model. Four types of Cell-PP films, expanded at different pressures, were used in this validation. The aim is to develop a model that describes the effect of morphological parameters on the stiffness of the films by simulating the manufacturing procedure.
The Pizzicato Energy Harvester (EH) introduced the technique of frequency up-conversion to piezoelectric EHs wearable on the lateral side of the knee-joint. The operation principle is to pluck the piezoelectric bimorphs with plectra so that they produce electrical energy during the ensuing mechanical vibrations. The device presented in this work is, in some ways, an evolution of the earlier Pizzicato: it is a significantly more compact and lighter device; the central hub holds 16 piezoelectric bimorphs shaped as trapezoids, which permits a sleek design and potentially increased energy output for the same bimorph area. Plectra were formed by Photochemical Machining of a 100-μm-thick steel sheet. To avoid the risk of short-circuiting, the plectra were electrically passivated by sputtering a 100 nm layer of ZrO2. Bench tests with the steel plectra showed a very large energy generation. Polyimide plectra were also manufactured with a cutting plotter from a 125μm-thick film. Besides bench tests, a volunteer wore the device while walking on flat ground or climbing stairs, with a measured energy output of approximately 0.8 mJ per step. Whereas most of the tests were performed by the traditional method of discharging the rectified output from the EH onto a resistive load, tests were performed also with a circuit offering a stabilised 3.3 V supply. The circuit produced a stable 0.1 mA supply during running gait with kapton plectra.
KEYWORDS: Finite element methods, Current controlled current source, Aerospace engineering, Sensors, Structural health monitoring, Composites, Tolerancing, Skin, Adhesives
Weight reduction and maintenance simplification are high in the agenda of companies and researchers active in the aerospace sector. Energy harvesters are being investigated because they enable the installation of wireless sensor nodes, providing structural health monitoring of the aircraft without additional cabling. This paper presents both a weight-optimized composite wing structure and a piezoelectric harvester for the conversion of mechanical strain energy into electrical energy. Finite elements modelling was used for the minimum-weight optimisation within a multi-constraints framework (strength, damage tolerance, flutter speed and gust response). The resulting structure is 29% more compliant than the original one, but is also 45% lighter. A strain map was elaborated, which details the distribution of strain on the wing skin in response to gust loading, indicating the optimal locations for the harvesters. To assess the potential for energy generation, a piezoelectric harvester fixed to a portion of the wing was modelled with a multi-physics finite elements model developed in ANSYS. The time-domain waveforms of the strain expected when the aircraft encounters a gust (gust frequencies of 1, 2, 5 and 10 Hz were considered) are fed into the model. The effects of harvester thickness and size, as well as adhesive thickness, were investigated. Energy generation exceeding 10 J/m2 in the first few second from the beginning of the gust is predicted for 100μ-thick harvesters. The high energy density, low profile and weight of the piezoelectric film are greatly advantageous for the envisaged application.
KEYWORDS: Composites, Transducers, Microsoft Foundation Class Library, Fiber characterization, Energy harvesting, Sensor networks, Skin, Current controlled current source, Sensors, Aircraft structures
μCompact and lightweight energy harvesters are needed to power wireless sensor nodes (WSNs). WSNs can provide health monitoring of aircraft structures, improving safety and reducing costs by enabling predictive maintenance. A simple solution, which meets the requirements for lightness and compactness, is represented by piezoelectric generators fixed to the surface of the wing (i.e. the wing skin). Such piezoelectric patches can harvest the strain energy available when the wing is flexed, as occurs, for example, in the presence of gust loading. For this study, monolithic piezoelectric sheets and macro fibre composite (MFC) generators were fixed to plates made of two materials commonly used for aircraft wing skin: Al-2024 aluminium alloy and an epoxy-carbon fibre composite. The plates then underwent harmonically varying loading in a tensile testing machine. The power generation of the harvesters was measured at a selection of strain levels and excitation frequencies, across a range of electrical loads. The optimal electrical load, yielding maximum power extraction, was identified for each working condition. The generated power increases quadratically with the strain and linearly with the frequency. The optimal electrical load decreases with increasing frequency and is only marginally dependent on strain. Absolute values of generated power were highest with the MFC, reaching 12mW (330μW/cm2) under 1170μstrain peak-to-peak excitation at 10Hz with a 66kΩ load. Power generation densities of 600μW/cm2 were achieved under 940μstrain with the monolithic transducers at 10Hz. It is found that MFCs have a lower power density than monolithic transducers, but, being more resilient, could be a more reliable choice. The power generated and the voltage outputs are appropriate for the intended application.
The modern drive towards mobility and wireless devices is motivating intense research in energy harvesting (EH) technologies. In an effort to reduce the battery burden of people, we are investigating a novel piezoelectric wearable energy harvester. As piezoelectric EH is significantly more effective at high frequencies, in opposition to the characteristically low-frequency human activities, we propose the use of an up-conversion strategy analogous to the pizzicato musical technique. In order to guide the design of such harvester, we have modelled with Finite Elements (FE) the response and power generation of a piezoelectric bimorph while it is "plucked", i.e. deflected, then released and permitted to vibrate freely. An experimental rig has been devised and set up to reproduce the action of the bimorph in the harvester. Measurements of the voltage output and the energy dissipated across a series resistor are reported and compared with the FE predictions. As the novel harvester will feature a number of bimorphs, each plucked tens of times per step, we predict a total power output of several mW, with imperceptible effect on the wearer's gait.
SiC is widely recognized as an ideal candidate for electronics and sensors required to operate at extremely high
temperatures. Cubic SiC (3C-SiC) is preferred to the hexagonal polytypes for the fabrication of mechanical devices due
to its lower cost (a film is deposited on a Si substrate) and greater ease of fabrication. As the deposited SiC film is
normally quite thin, some traditional designs of devices are not suitable. The Capacitive Ring-Electrode Accelerometer
(CREA) introduced in this paper offers much greater design flexibility. Featuring a central boss of un-prescribed
thickness, the value of its seismic mass can be set over a wide range, independently of the sensing capacitance. The
latter is realized between a SiC electrode, which surrounds and moves together with the boss, and the underlying
substrate. The CREA design was extensively analysed in a FE environment and prototypes were fabricated. Pressure
sensors based on the deformable membrane principle and piezoresistive pickup have also been designed, fabricated and
tested. The dependence of apex displacement on pressure was used to extract the Young's modulus and the residual
stress of the SiC film (bulge test). The membrane was investigated by optical profilometry at various values of pressure
and at temperatures between 300 K and 800 K. The shape of the membrane was compared with the FE predictions with
a positive outcome.
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