In mild hyperthermia (MHTh), targeted tumors are heated to approximately 41 to 44°C, typically to enhance chemo-, radiation, and/or immunotherapy. This study demonstrates the efficacy of a ring-array ultrasound (US) transducer in generating and monitoring MHTh in heterogeneous media. A ring-array provides enhanced focusing and heat localization compared to conventional linear-array US. We simulated scenarios using either one, two, or four 128-element linear-array transducers, or a 256-element ring-array transducer, to generate focused US profiles. The full width half maximum (FWHM) was measured to quantify the results. The ring-array achieved the most accurate and localized focal pressure profile with a focal spot size of 2×2mm. In a simulated heterogeneous breast model, sound speed (SS) compensation with a ring-array resulted in more efficient acoustic focusing than non-compensated fields. The focal point without SS compensation shifted spatially from its target due to acoustic aberrations, highlighting the importance of aberration correction for precise heat localization. Additionally, the ring-array's heat generation capability was evaluated in-vitro using a tissue-mimicking phantom, where the temperature at the focal point was increased by 6°C in 12 minutes and was sustainable. Lastly, the capability of a ring-array to track temperature was evaluated using US tomography (UST) in another in-vitro experiment. Here, a cylindrical inclusion in a tissue-mimicking phantom was filled with preheated water and allowed to passively cool from 45°C to 25°C. A ring-array tracked the temperature changes based on SS images with a mean error of 0.06±0.28°C. In summary, a ring-array transducer (1) achieved the best focal profile compared to standard linear transducers, (2) accomplished superior aberration correction using SS images, resulting in better aberration-free focusing in heterogeneous media, (3) generated sustainable heat at a focal point, and (4) accurately monitored temperature changes with UST.
In this work, we developed a new multimodal technology that can simultaneously measure a subset of mechanical, optical, and acoustical properties of the sample, which is based on the integration of Brillouin and photoacoustic (PA) microscopy. Notably, this integration offers a novel approach to probing the refractive index of the sample, which is inaccessible through each technique alone. As a proof-of-concept, we demonstrated the feasibility of the combined setup to obtain the co-registered Brillouin and time-resolved PA signals in a synthetic phantom made of kerosene and CuSO4 aqueous solution. In addition, we measured the refractive index of saline solutions and validated the result in comparison with previously reported data.
A sonographic short cervix is a major risk factor for spontaneous preterm birth (PTB). However, the cervical length is a suboptimal means to assess cervical status due to the lack of functional and molecular information. Spectroscopic photoacoustic (sPA) imaging is a non-invasive ultrasound-based technology for assessing cervical tissue compositions, such as collagen-to-water ratio (CWR), which are the major molecular changes during cervical ripening. A longitudinal CWR measurement by sPA was performed in murine cervices (n=3 per group) through the gestational ages from nonpregnant, 13.5 to 19.5 dpc, 6 to 12 hours, and 69 to 94 hours postpartum. The sPA data acquisition was performed in a range of wavelengths covering the peak absorption of collagen and water (1070to 1650 nm) with an amplified sPA wavelength unmixing method (sPA-CWR). The results indicated that the sPA-CWR method is capable of accurately quantifying cervical tissue composition changes during cervical remodeling. The non-pregnant murine cervical samples have significantly higher sPA-CWR than any other tissue group. A decrement in CWR at larger gestational ages was detected, which follows the cervical ripening process. In addition, the repair process was detected through increased CWR in tissue samples collected 6 to12 hours postpartum and completing their recovering process at about 69 to 94 hours postpartum. Finally, the imaging results were validated by quantitative histological analysis. These histological results confirm that the sPA-CWR measurements have a high correlation to the process of collagen reorganizing. Therefore, the sPA-CWR method can be a more accurate biomarker for estimating PTB risk.
An estimate of more than 400,000 gastrostomy tubes (G-tubes) is placed annually in the United States. However, the poor organ visualization in endoscopy, ionizing radiation in fluoroscopy, US imaging artifacts, and limited point-of-care solutions limit the efficacy of image-guided G-tube placement procedures. Herein, we propose to develop a safe, point-of-care photoacoustic (PA) image-guidance system which utilizes a dual-wavelength approach for detecting the tissue’s endogenous and exogenous contrast agent for accurate G-tube placements. Our preliminary studies indicated that PA imaging accurately detected the dye-labeled colon-mimic, providing high contrast, artifact-free images of the introducer fiber superimposed on the US highlighted tissue background.
Purpose: Transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS) is a widely used real-time and non-invasive imaging technique for fetal and maternal care. It can provide structural and functional measurements about the fetal brain, such as blood vessel diameter and blood flow. However, it lacks certain biochemical estimations, such as hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO2), which limits its ability to indicate a fetus at risk of birth asphyxia. Photoacoustic (PA) imaging has been steadily growing in recognition as a complement to ultrasound (US). Studies have shown PA imaging is capable of providing such biochemical estimations as SO2 at relatively high penetration depth (up to 30 mm).
Approach: In this study, we have designed and developed a multi-modal (US, PA, and Doppler) endocavity imaging system (ECUSPA) around a commercialized TVUS probe (Philips ATL C9-5).
Results: The integrated system was evaluated through a set of in-vitro, ex-vivo, and in-vivo studies. Imaging of excised sheep brain tissue demonstrated the system’s utility and penetration depth in transfontanelle imaging conditions. The accuracy of using the spectroscopic PA imaging (sPA) method to estimate SO2 was validated by comparing sPA oximetry results with the gold standard measurements indicated by a blood gas analyzer. The ability of US and Doppler to measure moving blood volume was evaluated in-vivo. Spectral unmixing capabilities were tested using fluorophores within sheep brains.
Conclusion: The developed system is a high resolution (about 200 μm at 30 mm depth), real-time (at 30 Hz), and quantitative (SO2 estimation error <10 % ) imaging tool with a total diameter less than 30 mm, making it suitable for intrapartum applications such as fetal and maternal diagnostics.
Significance: Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) has been greatly developed in a broad range of diagnostic applications. The efficiency of light to sound conversion in PAI is limited by the ubiquitous noise arising from the tissue background, leading to a low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and thus a poor quality of images. Frame averaging has been widely used to reduce the noise; however, it compromises the temporal resolution of PAI.
Aim: We propose an approach for photoacoustic (PA) signal denoising based on a combination of low-pass filtering and sparse coding (LPFSC).
Approach: LPFSC method is based on the fact that PA signal can be modeled as the sum of low frequency and sparse components, which allows for the reduction of noise levels using a hybrid alternating direction method of multipliers in an optimization process.
Results: LPFSC method was evaluated using in-silico and experimental phantoms. The results show a 26% improvement in the peak SNR of PA signal compared to the averaging method for in-silico data. On average, LPFSC method offers a 63% improvement in the image contrast-to-noise ratio and a 33% improvement in the structural similarity index compared to the averaging method for objects located at three different depths, ranging from 10 to 20 mm, in a porcine tissue phantom.
Conclusions: The proposed method is an effective tool for PA signal denoising, whereas it ultimately improves the quality of reconstructed images, especially at higher depths, without limiting the image acquisition speed.
Given that breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths among women in the United States, it is necessary to continue improving the sensitivity and specificity of breast imaging systems that diagnose breast lesions. Photoacoustic (PA) imaging can provide functional information during in vivo studies and can augment the structural information provided by ultrasound (US) imaging. A full-ring, all-reflective, illumination system for photoacoustic tomography (PAT) coupled to a full-ring US receiver is developed and tested. The US/PA tomography system utilizes a cone mirror and conical reflectors to optimize light delivery for PAT imaging and has the potential to image objects that are placed within the ring US transducer. The conical reflector used in this system distributes the laser energy over a circular cross-sectional area, thereby reducing the overall fluence. This, in turn, allows the operator to increase the laser energy achieving better cross-sectional penetration depth. A proof-of-concept design utilizing a single cone mirror and a parabolic reflector is used for imaging cylindrical phantoms with light-absorbing objects. For the given phantoms, it has been shown that there was no restriction in imaging a given targeted cross-sectional area irrespective of vertical depth, demonstrating the potential of mirror-based, ring-illuminated PAT system. In addition, the all-reflective ring illumination method shows a uniform PA signal across the scanned cross-sectional area.
UltraSound Elastography (USE) has been widely used to obtain mechanical properties of tissues. Radio frequency (RF) data is usually used in USE to estimate the displacement. However, RF data is not available in all ultrasound imaging devices. B-mode images which are basically the envelope of the RF data are the most well-known output of the common ultrasound imaging devices. In B-mode images, the phase information of RF data is lost. Consequently, USE can be more challenging and the strain image quality would be degraded. The aim of this paper is to employ Demons algorithm, which is a powerful non-rigid image registration algorithm, to estimate displacement using B-mode images. In USE, the post-compression image may have large deformations in axial direction which deteriorates the Demons algorithm performance. In order to compensate the large deformations, an optimization algorithm is proposed to find and compensate the mean value axial deformation. Experimental and numerical phantoms are used to verify the algorithm performance in normal and severe situations. The results are compared with the common normalized cross correlation (NCC) algorithm. The results confirm that Demons algorithm is an appropriate algorithm for USE for B-mode images considering the fact that phase information are not available.
One of the most common algorithms used in linear-array photoacoustic imaging, is Delay-and-Sum (DAS) beamformer due to its simple implementation. The results show that this algorithm results in a low resolution and high sidelobes. In this paper, it is proposed to use the sparse-based algorithm in order to suppress the noise level efficiently and improve the image quality. The forward problem of the beamforming is defined through a Least square (LS) method, and a ℓ1-norm regularization term is added to the problem which forces the sparsity of the output to the existing minimization problem. The new robust method, named sparse beamforming (SB) method, significantly suppresses the sidelobes and reduces the noise level due to the sparse added term. Numerical results show that SB leads to signal-to-noise-ratio improvement about 98.69 dB and 82.26 dB, in average, compared to DAS and Delay-Multiply-and-Sum (DMAS), respectively. Also, the full-width-half-maximum is improved about 396 μm and 123 μm, in average, compared to DAS and DMAS algorithms, respectively, using the proposed SB method, which indicates the good performance of SB method in image enhancement.
In linear-array photoacoustic imaging, different types of algorithms and beamformers are used to construct the images. Delay-and-Sum (DAS), as a non-adaptive algorithm, is one of the most popular algorithms used due to its low complexity. However, the results obtained from this algorithm contain high sidelobes and wide mainlobe. The adaptive Minimum Variance (MV) beamformer can address these limitations and improve the images in terms of resolution and contrast. In this paper, it is proposed to suppress the sidelobes more efficiently compared to MV by eliminating the effect of the samples caused by noise and interference. This would be achieved by zeroing the samples corresponding to the lower values of the calculated weights. In the other words, in the proposed MV-based-sparse subarray (MVB-S) method, the subarrays are considered to be sparse. The results show that MVB-S method leads to signal-to-noise-ratio improvement about 39.72 dB and 18.92 dB in average, compared to DAS and MV, respectively, which indicates the good performance of MVB-S method in noise reduction and sidelobe suppression.
One of the most common algorithms used in Photoacoustic and ultrasound image reconstruction, is the nonadaptive Delay-and-Sum (DAS) beamformer. The results show that this algorithm suffers from low resolution and high level of sidelobes. In this paper, it is suggested to weight the DAS beamformed signals to address these limitations and improve the image quality. The new weighting factor, named Delay-Multiply-and-StandardDeviation (DMASD) is designed in the way that the standard deviation of the mutual coupled and multiplied delayed signals is calculated, normalized and multiplied to the DAS formula. Quantitative results obtained from the numerical study show that the proposed DMASD weighting factor improves the Signal-to-Noise-Ratio for about 48.62 dB and 46.53 dB, compared to DAS and the Delay-and-Standard-Deviation (DASD) weighting factor, respectively, at the depth of 35 mm. Also, the Full-Width-Half-Maximum is improved about 0.78 mm and 0.84 mm, compared to DAS and DASD weighting factor, respectively, at the same depth using the proposed DMASD weighting factor, which indicates the improvement of resolution.
Due to the high rate of gynecologic cancers among females, obtaining structural, functional, and molecular information from reproductive organs can potentially reveal diseases at their early stages of development . In this study, we aimed to develop a miniaturized phased-array ultrasound (US) and photoacoustic (PA) endoscope for potential imaging gynecologic cancer. The developed endoscope is built around a phased-array US transducer coupled to a fiber optic light delivery system. In particular, the proposed endoscope consists of a 64-element phased array US transducer, coupled to a light delivery system that includes six fiber optics. The probe dimensions allow for utilizing this device for imaging various types of gynecologic cancers in which the probe can become close to the pathologic tissue. Given the small imaging aperture, adaptive beamforming was developed to reconstruct co-registered US and PA images in 90-degrees sector scan format. The developed endoscope was tested in a set of tissue-mimicking phantom studies to determine its characteristics and its ability to form form co-registered volumetric US and PA images. In addition, spectroscopic PA (sPA) imaging of biocompatible, folate conjugated dye was tested to demonstrate the possibility of using the developed endoscope in imaging PA molecular contrast agents.
KEYWORDS: Acoustics, Acquisition tracking and pointing, Tissue optics, Photoacoustic tomography, Monte Carlo methods, Tissues, Diffusion, Pathology, Cancer, Signal attenuation
Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) is a noninvasive, high-resolution imaging modality, capable of providing functional and molecular information of various pathologies such as cancer. In most PAT systems, the effect of tissue heterogeneity (i.e. variations in acoustic properties such as speed of sound and acoustic attenuation) is neglected. This is due to the lack of information about acoustic properties of tissue and complexity of a model to compensate for these variations. We have been developing a full-ring PAT system consists of an omni-directional illumination and a ring-based acoustic detection. In this study, we investigate using a model-based method that employs light diffusion (Monte-carlo) and acoustic wave propagation (K-wave) to compensate for both optical and acoustic heterogeneity of the tissue and provide fully compensated (i.e. quantitative) PAT images for our full-ring PAT system. To demonstrate the feasibility of providing fully compensated PAT images, in silico studies were performed in which a heterogeneous breast-tissue-mimicking phantoms were computationally generated. The map includes optical (µa, µs, g) and acoustic properties (ρ, Cs) of the fatty, fibroglandular and breast lesions. The monte-carlo light diffusion model was first utilized to generate the fluence map and thus the initial photoacoustic pressure fields (P0) within the tissue. Following to the generation of P0, the propagation of acoustic waves through a heterogeneous medium was simulated using K-wave. Using a ring-geometry ultrasound transducers (N=256), the pressure waves were received and were utilized to reconstruct PAT images. Our results indicate the PAT improvement using acoustic and optical compensation and more importantly the feasibility of achieving “quantitative” PAT images upon compensating for tissue heterogeneity.
100 Word Abstract:
Spontaneous preterm birth (sPTB) occurs in about one in ten infants born in the United States and is leading to almost 1 million neonatal deaths worldwide [1]. Diagnostic imaging of cervix is mostly limited to using ultrasound (US) to measure cervical length and has shown a low specificity to determine the risk of sPTB [2-7]. Quantitative functional imaging modalities such as elastography (EL) and photoacoustic (PA) imaging, are commonly used in conjunction with US imaging to provide additional information on tissue compositions and function. We propose using an endocavity probe to acquire US, PA, and EL information of the cervical tissue. Specifically, spectroscopic PA (sPA) is proposed to provide information on cervical tissue such as total hemoglobin (blood perfusion), tissue oxygenation level, and more importantly the collagen-to-water ratio in tissue. Shear wave elastography (SWE) measurements of cervical tissue indicates the correlation between cervical ripening and lower tissue elasticity. Our custom-designed imaging system consists of an endovaginal US transducer (ATL C9-5) capable of performing high frame rate US and acoustic radiation force shear wave imaging, and an optimized fiber-optic light delivery system’s for PA imaging. Our experimental results indicate the system’s ability to measure the presence of different concentrations of hemoglobin in tissue-mimicking phantoms as well as accurate measurement of hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SO2). In another set of experiments, we demonstrated the feasibility of monitoring collagen-to-water ratio in tissues through monitoring changes in sPA signature between 1100 and 1650 nm. Monitoring the variations of collagen in cervical tissue can help to predict sPTB.
Among various types of cancer, breast cancer is considered to be the most common that affects thousands of women all over the world. Several imaging tools are being used for breast cancer detection and diagnosis. Mammography and B-mode ultrasound (US) are the primary screening tools for breast lesions. However, mammography is limited with low sensitivity especially in women with dense breasts, who appear to be at higher risk of breast cancer. Additionally, the B-mode US suffers from low specificity in the differential diagnosis of breast lesions. Therefore, it is clinically significant to develop screening techniques that could eliminate previous limitations. Photoacoustic (PA) has been showing potential for early stage detection and staging breast cancer due to its unique abilities to acquire functional and molecular information of the breast lesions. We have developed an optimized US and PA tomography system, which uses custom designed all reflective based optics to create an omnidirectional ring-shaped beam to illuminate a cross-section of the breast tissue and acquire thegenerated acoustic waves by using a full-ring US transducer. The developed PA tomography (PAT) system can potentially make a more uniform illumination of the breast tissue and more importantly enhance the imaging depth. In this study, development of the full-ring illumination and the results of our initial feasibility US/PA tests are presented.
Nearly 20% of the United States’ population is affected by varicose veins at some point in their lives. Currently, ultrasound (US) imaging is used as clinical imaging modality to help surgeons visualize and place the ablation catheter within the diseased vein accurately. However, US imaging of catheters has limitations such as angular dependency, especially for treating perforating veins. In addition, the laser ablation procedure is often performed without any real-time temperature monitoring, which could lead to non-sufficient thermal dose or heat induced thrombosis. We propose using combined US and Photoacoustic (PA) imaging for accurate localization of the laser ablation fibers within the veins. More specifically, we proposed coupling both ablation CW laser and pulsed laser into a single ablation catheter to perform both ablation and PA localization and of the catheter and thermometry. Our studies clearly indicated that while US imaging visualizes the body of the catheter, PA signal is only generated at the interface between the fiber tip and the tissue. As a result, PA images of the catheter indicate the location of the tip of the catheter only, without any possibility of error and mislocation. We initially investigated and compared the utility of US and PA in tracking fiber tip in a set of vessel-mimicking phantoms. Our results indicated artifact-free and accurate detection of the fiber tip using PA in contrast to US. Using the PA signal temperature dependency, we also demonstrated the utility of PA for real-time monitoring of temperature increase during laser ablation procedures.
Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is a promising medical imaging modality providing the spatial resolution of ultrasound imaging and the contrast of optical imaging. For linear-array PAI, a beamformer can be used as the reconstruction algorithm. Delay-and-sum (DAS) is the most prevalent beamforming algorithm in PAI. However, using DAS beamformer leads to low-resolution images as well as high sidelobes due to nondesired contribution of off-axis signals. Coherence factor (CF) is a weighting method in which each pixel of the reconstructed image is weighted, based on the spatial spectrum of the aperture, to mainly improve the contrast. We demonstrate that the numerator of the formula of CF contains a DAS algebra and propose the use of a delay-multiply-and-sum beamformer instead of the available DAS on the numerator. The proposed weighting technique, modified CF (MCF), has been evaluated numerically and experimentally compared to CF. It was shown that MCF leads to lower sidelobes and better detectable targets. The quantitative results of the experiment (using wire targets) show that MCF leads to for about 45% and 40% improvement, in comparison with CF, in the terms of signal-to-noise ratio and full-width-half-maximum, respectively.
Effective brachytherapy procedures require precise placement of radioactive seeds in the prostate. Currently, transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) imaging is one of the main intraoperative imaging modalities to assist physicians in placement of brachytherapy seeds. However, the seed detection rate with TRUS is poor mainly because ultrasound imaging is highly sensitive to variations in seed orientation. The purpose of this study is to investigate the abilities of a new acoustic radiation force imaging modality, vibro-acoustography (VA), equipped with a 1.75D array transducer and implemented on a customized clinical ultrasound scanner, to image and localize brachytherapy seeds in prostatic tissue. To perform experiments, excised cadaver prostate specimens were implanted with dummy brachytherapy seeds, and embedded in tissue mimicking gel to simulate the properties of the surrounding soft tissues. The samples were scanned using the VA system and the resulting VA signals were used to reconstruct VA images at several depths inside the tissue. To further evaluate the performance of VA in detecting seeds, X-ray computed tomography (CT) images of the same tissue sample, were obtained and used as a gold-standard to compare the number of seeds detected by the two methods. Our results indicate that VA is capable of imaging of brachytherapy seeds with accuracy and high contrast, and can detect a large percentage of the seeds implanted within the tissue samples.
Ultrasound imaging can provide excellent resolution at reasonable depths while retaining the advantages of being nonionizing,
cost-effective and portable. However, the contrast in ultrasound imaging is limited, and various ultrasoundbased
techniques such as photoacoustic (PA) and magneto-motive ultrasound (MMUS) imaging have been developed to
augment ultrasound imaging. Photoacoustic imaging enhances imaging contrast by visualizing the optical absorption of
either tissue or injected contrast agents (e.g., gold or silver nanoparticles). MMUS imaging enhances the sensitivity and
specificity of ultrasound based on the detection of magnetic nanoparticles perturbed by an external magnetic field. This
paper presents integrated magneto-photo-acoustic (MPA) imaging - a fusion of complementary ultrasound-based
imaging techniques. To demonstrate the feasibility of MPA imaging, porcine ex-vivo tissue experiments were performed
using a dual contrast (magnetic/plasmonic) agent. Spatially
co-registered and temporally consecutive ultrasound,
photoacoustic, and magneto-motive ultrasound images of the same
cross-section of tissue were obtained. Our ex-vivo
results indicate that magneto-photo-acoustic imaging can be used to detect magnetic/plasmonic nanoparticles with high
resolution, sensitivity and contrast. Therefore, our study suggests that magneto-photo-acoustic images can identify the
morphological properties, molecular information and complementary functional information of the tissue.
Photothermal therapy is a laser-based non-invasive technique for cancer treatment. Photothermal therapy can be
enhanced by employing metal nanoparticles that absorb the radiant energy from the laser leading to localized thermal
damages. Targeting of nanoparticles leads to more efficient uptake and localization of photoabsorbers thus increasing the
effectiveness of the treatment. Moreover, efficient targeting can reduce the required dosage of photoabsorbers; thereby
reducing the side effects associated with general systematic administration of nanoparticles. Magnetic nanoparticles, due
to their small size and response to an external magnetic field gradient have been proposed for targeted drug delivery. In
this study, we investigate the applicability of multifunctional nanoparticles (e.g., magneto-plasmonic nanoparticles) and
magneto-motive ultrasound imaging for image-guided photothermal therapy. Magneto-motive ultrasound imaging is an
ultrasound based imaging technique capable of detecting magnetic nanoparticles indirectly by utilizing a high strength
magnetic field to induce motion within the magnetically labeled tissue. The ultrasound imaging is used to detect the
internal tissue motion. Due to presence of the magnetic component, the proposed multifunctional nanoparticles along
with magneto-motive ultrasound imaging can be used to detect the presence of the photo absorbers. Clearly the higher
concentration of magnetic carriers leads to a monotonic increase in magneto-motive ultrasound signal. Thus, magnetomotive
ultrasound can determine the presence of the hybrid agents and provide information about their location and
concentration. Furthermore, the magneto-motive ultrasound signal can indicate the change in tissue elasticity - a
parameter that is expected to change significantly during the photothermal therapy. Therefore, a comprehensive guidance
and assessment of the photothermal therapy may be feasible through magneto-motive ultrasound imaging and magnetoplasmonic
nanoparticles.
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