This paper, “PIMACS (Polarimeter and improved modular anti-coincidence system): an effective instrument concept for x-, gamma-ray monitoring, and polarimetry measurements on the International Space Station," was presented as part of International Conference on Space Optics—ICSO 1997, held in Toulouse, France.
M. Feroci, E. Bozzo, S. Brandt, M. Hernanz, M. van der Klis, L.-P. Liu, P. Orleanski, M. Pohl, A. Santangelo, S. Schanne, L. Stella, T. Takahashi, H. Tamura, A. Watts, J. Wilms, S. Zane, S.-N. Zhang, S. Bhattacharyya, I. Agudo, M. Ahangarianabhari, C. Albertus, M. Alford, A. Alpar, D. Altamirano, L. Alvarez, L. Amati, C. Amoros, N. Andersson, A. Antonelli, A. Argan, R. Artigue, B. Artigues, J.-L. Atteia, P. Azzarello, P. Bakala, D. Ballantyne, G. Baldazzi, M. Baldo, S. Balman, M. Barbera, C. van Baren, D. Barret, A. Baykal, M. Begelman, E. Behar, O. Behar, T. Belloni, F. Bernardini, G. Bertuccio, S. Bianchi, A. Bianchini, P. Binko, P. Blay, F. Bocchino, M. Bode, P. Bodin, I. Bombaci, J.-M. Bonnet Bidaud, S. Boutloukos, F. Bouyjou, L. Bradley, J. Braga, M. Briggs, E. Brown, M. Buballa, N. Bucciantini, L. Burderi, M. Burgay, M. Bursa, C. Budtz-Jørgensen, E. Cackett, F. Cadoux, P. Cais, G. Caliandro, R. Campana, S. Campana, X. Cao, F. Capitanio, J. Casares, P. Casella, A. Castro-Tirado, E. Cavazzuti, Y. Cavechi, S. Celestin, P. Cerda-Duran, D. Chakrabarty, N. Chamel, F. Château, C. Chen, Y. Chen, J. Chenevez, M. Chernyakova, J. Coker, R. Cole, A. Collura, M. Coriat, R. Cornelisse, L. Costamante, A. Cros, W. Cui, A. Cumming, G. Cusumano, B. Czerny, A. D'Aì, F. D'Ammando, V. D'Elia, Z. Dai, E. Del Monte, A. De Luca, D. De Martino, J. P. C. Dercksen, M. De Pasquale, A. De Rosa, M. Del Santo, S. Di Cosimo, N. Degenaar, J. W. den Herder, S. Diebold, T. Di Salvo, Y. Dong, I. Donnarumma, V. Doroshenko, G. Doyle, S. Drake, M. Durant, D. Emmanoulopoulos, T. Enoto, M. H. Erkut, P. Esposito, Y. Evangelista, A. Fabian, M. Falanga, Y. Favre, C. Feldman, R. Fender, H. Feng, V. Ferrari, C. Ferrigno, M. Finger, G. Fraser, M. Frericks, M. Fullekrug, F. Fuschino, M. Gabler, D. K. Galloway, J. L. Gálvez Sanchez, P. Gandhi, Z. Gao, E. Garcia-Berro, B. Gendre, O. Gevin, S. Gezari, A. B. Giles, M. Gilfanov, P. Giommi, G. Giovannini, M. Giroletti, E. Gogus, A. Goldwurm, K. Goluchová, D. Götz, L. Gou, C. Gouiffes, P. Grandi, M. Grassi, J. Greiner, V. Grinberg, P. Groot, M. Gschwender, L. Gualtieri, M. Guedel, C. Guidorzi, L. Guy, D. Haas, P. Haensel, M. Hailey, K. Hamuguchi, F. Hansen, D. Hartmann, C. A. Haswell, K. Hebeler, A. Heger, M. Hempel, W. Hermsen, J. Homan, A. Hornstrup, R. Hudec, J. Huovelin, D. Huppenkothen, S. Inam, A. Ingram, J. In't Zand, G. Israel, K. Iwasawa, L. Izzo, H. Jacobs, F. Jetter, T. Johannsen, P. Jenke, P. Jonker, J. Josè, P. Kaaret, K. Kalamkar, E. Kalemci, G. Kanbach, V. Karas, D. Karelin, D. Kataria, L. Keek, T. Kennedy, D. Klochkov, W. Kluzniak, E. Koerding, K. Kokkotas, S. Komossa, S. Korpela, C. Kouveliotou, A. Kowalski, I. Kreykenbohm, L. Kuiper, D. Kunneriath, A. Kurkela, I. Kuvvetli, F. La Franca, C. Labanti, D. Lai, F. Lamb, C. Lachaud, P. Laubert, F. Lebrun, X. Li, E. Liang, O. Limousin, D. Lin, M. Linares, D. Linder, G. Lodato, F. Longo, F. Lu, N. Lund, T. Maccarone, D. Macera, S. Maestre, S. Mahmoodifar, D. Maier, P. Malcovati, J. Malzac, C. Malone, I. Mandel, V. Mangano, A. Manousakis, M. Marelli, J. Margueron, M. Marisaldi, S. Markoff, A. Markowitz, A. Marinucci, A. Martindale, G. Martínez, I. McHardy, G. Medina-Tanco, M. Mehdipour, A. Melatos, M. Mendez, S. Mereghetti, S. Migliari, R. Mignani, M. Michalska, T. Mihara, M. C. Miller, J. M. Miller, T. Mineo, G. Miniutti, S. Morsink, C. Motch, S. Motta, M. Mouchet, G. Mouret, J. Mulačová, F. Muleri, T. Muñoz-Darias, I. Negueruela, J. Neilsen, T. Neubert, A. Norton, M. Nowak, A. Nucita, P. O'Brien, M. Oertel, P. E. H. Olsen, M. Orienti, M. Orio, M. Orlandini, J. Osborne, R. Osten, F. Ozel, L. Pacciani, F. Paerels, S. Paltani, M. Paolillo, I. Papadakis, A. Papitto, Z. Paragi, J. Paredes, A. Patruno, B. Paul, F. Pederiva, E. Perinati, A. Pellizzoni, A. V. Penacchioni, U. Peretz, M. Perez, M. Perez-Torres, B. Peterson, V. Petracek, C. Pittori, J. Pons, J. Portell, A. Possenti, K. Postnov, J. Poutanen, M. Prakash, I. Prandoni, H. Le Provost, D. Psaltis, J. Pye, J. Qu, D. Rambaud, P. Ramon, G. Ramsay, M. Rapisarda, A. Rashevski, I. Rashevskaya, P. Ray, N. Rea, S. Reddy, P. Reig, M. Reina Aranda, R. Remillard, C. Reynolds, L. Rezzolla, M. Ribo, R. de la Rie, A. Riggio, A. Rios, D. Rischke, P. Rodríguez-Gil, J. Rodriguez, R. Rohlfs, P. Romano, E. M. Rossi, A. Rozanska, A. Rousseau, B. Rudak, D. Russell, F. Ryde, L. Sabau-Graziati, T. Sakamoto, G. Sala, R. Salvaterra, D. Salvetti, A. Sanna, J. Sandberg, T. Savolainen, S. Scaringi, J. Schaffner-Bielich, H. Schatz, J. Schee, C. Schmid, M. Serino, N. Shakura, S. Shore, J. Schnittman, R. Schneider, A. Schwenk, A. Schwope, A. Sedrakian, J.-Y. Seyler, A. Shearer, A. Slowikowska, M. Sims, A. Smith, D. Smith, P. Smith, M. Sobolewska, V. Sochora, P. Soffitta, P. Soleri, L. Song, A. Spencer, A. Stamerra, B. Stappers, R. Staubert, A. Steiner, N. Stergioulas, A. Stevens, G. Stratta, T. Strohmayer, Z. Stuchlik, S. Suchy, V. Suleimanov, F. Tamburini, T. Tauris, F. Tavecchio, C. Tenzer, F. Thielemann, A. Tiengo, L. Tolos, F. Tombesi, J. Tomsick, G. Torok, J. M. Torrejon, D. F. Torres, E. Torresi, A. Tramacere, I. Traulsen, A. Trois, R. Turolla, S. Turriziani, S. Typel, P. Uter, P. Uttley, A. Vacchi, P. Varniere, S. Vaughan, S. Vercellone, M. Vietri, F. Vincent, V. Vrba, D. Walton, J. Wang, Z. Wang, S. Watanabe, R. Wawrzaszek, N. Webb, N. Weinberg, H. Wende, P. Wheatley, R. Wijers, R. Wijnands, M. Wille, C. Wilson-Hodge, B. Winter, S. Walk, K. Wood, S. Woosley, X. Wu, R. Xu, W. Yu, F. Yuan, W. Yuan, Y. Yuan, G. Zampa, N. Zampa, L. Zampieri, L. Zdunik, A. Zdziarski, A. Zech, B. Zhang, C. Zhang, S. Zhang, M. Zingale, F. Zwart
The Large Observatory For x-ray Timing (LOFT) is a mission concept which was proposed to ESA as M3 and M4 candidate in the framework of the Cosmic Vision 2015-2025 program. Thanks to the unprecedented combination of effective area and spectral resolution of its main instrument and the uniquely large field of view of its wide field monitor, LOFT will be able to study the behaviour of matter in extreme conditions such as the strong gravitational field in the innermost regions close to black holes and neutron stars and the supra-nuclear densities in the interiors of neutron stars. The science payload is based on a Large Area Detector (LAD, >8m2 effective area, 2-30 keV, 240 eV spectral resolution, 1 degree collimated field of view) and a Wide Field Monitor (WFM, 2-50 keV, 4 steradian field of view, 1 arcmin source location accuracy, 300 eV spectral resolution). The WFM is equipped with an on-board system for bright events (e.g., GRB) localization. The trigger time and position of these events are broadcast to the ground within 30 s from discovery. In this paper we present the current technical and programmatic status of the mission.
Monitor e Imageador de RAios-X (MIRAX) is a Brazilian high energy astronomy mission dedicated to monitoring the central 1000 sq. deg. of the Galactic plane to observe unpredictable transient phenomena from compact objects in the 2-200 keV range through nearly continuous imaging with good spatial/temporal/energy resolution. The strength of MIRAX lies in the departure of its observing strategy from traditional pointed programs and scanning monitors. MIRAX will achieve two major advantages over previous and existing missions. First, it will detect, localize, and study transient phenomena, which last on all timescales from milliseconds to years, and are very likely to be missed by traditional observing strategies. Second, MIRAX will study longer lived phenomena in exquisite detail. The mission elements and science will be presented.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Field programmable gate arrays, Data communications, Data processing, Data conversion, Electrodes, Image processing, Satellites, Control systems, Imaging systems
We present the Event Pre Processor (EPP) for the Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride-strip detector of the Hard X-ray Imager (HXI) onboard of the MIRAX satellite. The purpose of the EPP is to provide an onboard data reduction and event filtering by applying a non linear energy gain correction for each detector strip. This data reduction is necessary because of the limited telemetry capacity of the MIRAX satellite. We decided to use hardwired data processing electronics based on a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) chip designed in VHDL. This solution allows us to combine high computation power with low power consumption. We discuss the functionality and status of the EPP design developed in T&diaeru;bingen.
The pn-CCD camera on board of XMM-Newton as well as the Wide Field Imager (WFI) currently being designed for the XEUS mission can be read out in special fast timing modes, providing spectroscopy at very high time resolution. The two fast modes, Timing and Burst mode, of the pn-CCD camera on board XMM-Newton provide a time resolution of 30 μs, respectively. However, this fast timing is only possible at the expense of spatial resolution in readout direction. In contrast, the current baseline design of the WFI for XEUS will provide 25 μs timing at full spatial resolution. We describe the basic principles of the fast readout schemes of the pn-CCD and the SFI, discuss the potential of XEUS for high time resolution spectroscopy and present first results of pulse phase resolved spectroscopy of the Crab pulsar with the pn-CCD in Timing mode.
We describe a proposal for an added capability of fast timing to the European x-ray astronomy mission XEUS. The scientific value of fast timing observations for the investigation of compact objects is recognized and has been demonstrated through observations by the Rossi x-ray Timing Explorer. We propose to make use of the huge collecting area of XEUS for timing studies with unparalleled photon statistics and time resolution. We describe the sceintifc motivation, e.g. to probe strong gravity fields around collapsed objects and to constrain the equation of state of dense matter in neutron stars. We discuss options for the implementation of detectors which coudl be small silicon drift detectors out of focus.
We describe the hard x-ray mission MIRAX - jointly proposed by teams from Brazil, the USA, Germany and the Netherlands. The scientific objective is to provide continuous 2-200 keV imaging of the central 1000 square degrees of our Galaxy for 9 months per year over up to 5 years. Durign times when the sun crosses the Galactic Center other areas like the Cygnus-, Vela- and the Magellanic Cloud-regions can be observed. MIRAX will detect, localize, identify and study sources of medium to hard x-ray emission, with special emphasis on short-lived, rare and unpredictable events, including weak x-ray transients and fast x-ray movae. MIRAX will reach in a one day observation a sensitivity of 1mCrab in 2-10 keV and 2.5mCrab in 10-100keV. MIRAX will provide a unique capability to study compact galactic objects - notably accreting neutron stars and black holes. It will:- Probe neutron star and x-ray burst theory wiht 20,000 type I x-ray bursts and 50 'superbursts' - Measure spin frequencies of neutron stars from 10-100 burst oscillations - Observe explosive flares and x-ray light curves during ejections in superluminal jets - Study soft gamma-ray repeaters, fast x-ray novae and new types of phenomena yet to be discovered. We describe the science and the instrumentation.
After the launch of Chandra, it was realized that low energy protons (below approximately 300 keV) are funnelled by grazing incident mirrors onto the focal plane detectors. Front illuminated CCD detectors are very sensitive to soft protons causing radiation damage in their electrode structures and transfer channels. The back-illuminated 280 micrometer thick fully depleted pn-CCD of the European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC) on board the X-ray Multi Mirror mission (XMM) is by far less sensitive to low energy proton radiation. Commanding the camera in a special low gain mode, even allows to directly measure proton spectra and event patterns up to 300 keV per pixel. At the 3 MV Van-de-Graaff accelerator of the Institute for Physics in Tubingen we have irradiated and tested a 3 cm2 flight-like pn-CCD with protons from 1 to 300 keV up to a fluence of 1.4 (DOT) 109 protons/cm2. This is about a factor of 1000 above the expected solar proton fluence for a 10 year XMM-Newton mission under nominal operational conditions. In this paper we given an overview of the proton irradiation experiment, discuss the performance of the detector after proton irradiation and finally present proton spectra directly measured with the pn-CCD on board XMM-Newton during solar flares. In addition, we briefly describe the precautionary measures taken to minimize the proton radiation dose of the EPIC CCD detectors in orbit.
The FAR.XITE is a proposed balloon payload. After a test flight, our initial goal is to fly 10 nested mirror modules, but then even more modules can be added until the mass limit of the pointing system and balloon gondola are reached. These limits are yet to be determined. In our design, Wolter I mirrors are coated with multilayers that allow FAR.XITE to reach 100 keV with better than 1 arc minute angular resolution. We summarize the science objectives, optical design and specifications that were previously reported, and present our recent results of advances in X-ray mirror and detector.
On 10th December 1999, the European X-ray satellite XMM, now called XMM-Newton, was successfully put into orbit. After initial commissioning of the satellite's subsystems, the EPIC-pn camera was switched on and tested thoroughly in the period Jan./Febr. 2000. After refining of some of the parameter settings and the on-board pn-computer programs, we started the Calibration and Performance Verification Phase, which will last until the end of May 2000. In this paper we report on the results of the EPIC-pn Commissioning Phase with respect to the in-orbit performance of the camera. We also show some of the early results with the pn-camera, the first light image of a region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, and an observation of the Crab Nebular.
The pn-CCD camera is developed as one of the focal plane instrument for the European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC) on board the x-ray multi mirror mission (XMM) to be launched in December 1999. On 28 April 1999 an almost identical camera was launched on the German x-ray satellite ABRIXAS. The detector consists of four quadrants of three pn-CCDs each, which are integrated on a single silicon wafer. Each CCD has 200 X 64 pixels with 280 micrometers depletion depth, resulting in good quantum efficiency up to 15 keV. To minimize photon pile-up and/or image smearing by out-of-time events, six standard readout modes with integration times ranging from 7 microsecond(s) ec up to 280 msec can be selected by the observer. Background and noise reduction is achieved by means of on board generated offset maps and hard wired common mode filtering. Tracks of minimum ionizing particles are identified and suppressed by the experiment software on board. In this paper we give an overview of the on board event processing and describe important operation aspects of the pn-CCD camera.
The FAR_XITE balloon payload concept contains 10 co-aligned, hard x-ray telescopes, each containing a set of nested multilayer mirror modules and an actively shielded CZT strip detector at each focal plane. The 500 micron strip pitch provides 26 arcsecond pixels at the 4m focal length of FAR_XITE. The active shielding and advanced CZT detector techniques reduce the background at float altitudes to a few times 10-4 counts/cm2 keV. We describe these advanced detectors and how they allow us to meet the scientific objectives of the FAR_XITE program.
The FAR_XITE is a proposed Balloon Payload that consists of 10 nested mirror modules. The mirrors are coated with multilayers that allow FAR_XITE to reach 100 keV with better than 1 arcminute angular resolution. We describe the science objectives, optical design and specifications, and present out recent result of advances in X-ray mirror fabrication techniques.
The pm-CCD camera is one of the three focal plane instruments of the European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC) on board the x-ray multi mirror (XMM) mission scheduled for launch in August 1999. The detector consists of four quadrants of three pn-CCDs each, which are integrate don one 4 inch silicon wafer. Each CCD has 200 by 64 pixels with 280 micrometers depletion depth. One CCD of a quadrant is readout at a time, while the four quadrants can be processed independently of each other. Observations of point sources brighter than 11 mCrab in imaging mode will be effected by photon pile-up. However, special operating modes can be used to observe bright sources up to 150 mCrab in Timing Mode with 30 microsecond(s) time resolution and very bright sources up to several Crab in Burst Mode with 7 microsecond(s) time resolution. We have tested and calibrate the flight model FM of the EPIC pn-CCD camera at the long beam test facility Panter near Munich and at the synchrotron monochromators of the Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale in Orsay, France. In this paper describe the calibration of the pn-CCD detector in high time resolution/bright source operating modes and present preliminary results on the performance in these modes.
The concept and performance of the fully depleted pn- junction CCD system, developed for the European XMM- and the German ABRIXAS-satellite missions for soft x-ray imaging and spectroscopy in the 0.1 keV to 15 keV photon range, is presented. The 58 mm X 60 mm large pn-CCD array uses pn- junctions for registers and for the backside instead of MOS registers. This concept naturally allows to fully deplete the detector volume to make it an efficient detector to photons with energies up to 15 keV. For high detection efficiency in the soft x-ray region down to 100 eV, an ultrathin pn-CCD backside deadlayer has been realized. Each pn-CCD-channel is equipped with an on-chip JFET amplifier which, in combination with the CAMEX-amplifier and multiplexing chip, facilitates parallel readout with a pixel read rate of 3 MHz and an electronic noise floor of ENC < e-. With the complete parallel readout, very fast pn-CCD readout modi can be implemented in the system which allow for high resolution photon spectroscopy of even the brightest x-ray sources in the sky.
The pn-CCD camera is developed as one of the focal plane instruments for the European photon imaging camera (EPIC) on board the x-ray multi mirror (XMM) mission to be launched in 1999. The detector consists of four quadrants of three pn-CCDs each, which are integrated on one silicon wafer. Each CCD has 200 by 64 pixels (150 micrometer by 150 micrometers) with 280 micrometers depletion depth. One CCD of a quadrant is read out at a time, while the four quadrants can be processed independently of each other. In standard imaging mode the CCDs are read out sequentially every 70 ms. Observations of point sources brighter than 1 mCrab will be effected by photon pile- up. However, special operating modes can be used to observe bright sources up to 150 mCrab in timing mode with 30 microseconds time resolution and very bright sources up to several crab in burst mode with 7 microseconds time resolution. We have tested one quadrant of the EPIC pn-CCD camera at line energies from 0.52 keV to 17.4 keV at the long beam test facility Panter in the focus of the qualification mirror module for XMM. In order to test the time resolution of the system, a mechanical chopper was used to periodically modulate the beam intensity. Pulse periods down to 0.7 ms were generated. This paper describes the performance of the pn-CCD detector in timing and burst readout modes with special emphasis on energy and time resolution.
The pn-charge coupled device (pn-CCD) detector system was developed as the focal plane instrument of an x-ray telescope for the European photon imaging camera (EPIC) on the x-ray multi mirror (XMM) mission. The second cornerstone mission of the European Space Agency's Horizon 2000 plan performs high throughput imaging and spectroscopy of the x- ray sky in the domain of 0.1 keV - 15 keV. The pn-charge coupled device will also be used for a German x-ray astronomy satellite mission, called ABRIXAS (a broad-band imaging x-ray all-sky survey). While XMM will perform pointed observations. ABRIXAS will carry out an all sky survey with imaging telescopes. Both projects are planned to be launched in 1999. The homogeneous coherent sensitive area of the detector consists of a 6 cm by 6 cm large array of 12 pn-CCDs which are monolithically integrated on a single silicon wafer together with the first stage of amplification. The pn-CCD detector has been optimized for high-resolution x-ray spectroscopy and its performance is close to the theoretical limits given by the Fano noise. High quantum efficiency essential for the investigation of faint objects is accomplished over the whole energy range by a thin photon entrance window and a full sensitive detector thickness. A fast readout achieves excellent time resolution for the observation of pulsed x-ray sources and avoids pile- up for bright objects. The relevant performance parameters reflecting the state of the detector development are presented. The radiation hardness of the pn-CCD was verified for the ten year satellite mission. No significant increases in the thermally generated current, charge transfer losses and transfer noise occurred in the temperature range planned for detector operation. A correction of the signal charge losses, which occur already before irradiation in all types of charge coupled devices during the charge transfer to the anodes, is necessary to achieve the highest energy resolution of the detector. Methods to reduce the signal charge losses which were successfully tested, are described.
To follow up on the remarkable discoveries of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory and GRANAT, the International Gamma Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL) mission was selected by ESA as part of the agency's 'HORIZON 2000' strategic plan. It is scheduled to begin detailed gamma ray spectral and imaging studies, of unprecedented resolution, in the year 2001. One of the two main INTEGRAL instruments is a high performance imager. It features a coded aperture mask and a novel large area multilayer detector which utilizes both cadmium telluride and cesium iodide elements to deliver the fine angular-resolution approximately 12 arcmin, wide spectral response (15 keV to 10 MeV) and high resolution spectroscopy (6% at 100 keV) required to satisfy the mission's imaging objectives.
PN-CCDs are being developed as focal plane detectors for ESA's X-ray Multi-Mirror satellite mission (XMM), to be launched at the end of this century. As a part of the European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC) the pn-CCDs will convert the incoming X-ray radiation with high quantum efficiency, low readout noise, excellent background rejection, timing in the microsec regime, radiation tolerance up to several hundreds of krads and a position resolution tailored according to the angular resolution of the telescope. The goal of our laboratorial efforts for this mission is to fabricate a monolithic pn-CCD of an active area of 6 x 6 sq cm having 768 on-chip JFET amplifiers located at the end of each CCD line. It is the aim of this contribution to report on the ongoing work of the pn-CCD system. This article focuses on the position resolution capabilities of fully depleted pn-CCDs, some recent results in the noise analysis and preliminary results on 10 MeV proton damage.
The capabilities of the European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC), the main instrument of ESA's 'Cornerstone' mission in X-ray astronomy with multiple mirrors (XMM), are discussed. The CCD characteristics, spatial resolution, energy bandpass and faint source sensitivity, spectral resolution and sensitivity, and timing capability are addressed, and the scientific rationale of the EPIC is summarized. The EPIC instrument system concept is briefly described.
Recent results on the on-chip electronics, transfer properties, and radiation entrance window of pn-CCDs are presented. With recently fabricated devices, an improved charge transfer efficiency per pixel of 0.9995 and an energy resolution of the CCD output stage of 5 e(-) rms have been measured. This performance is achieved without a degradation of other characteristics of the devices, such as an X-ray efficiency of 90 percent at 10 keV, more than a factor of 1000 better time resolution in the full frame mode in comparison with all other CCD concepts, and a one-dimensional spatial resolution of 24 microsec in the timing mode. The use of pn-junctions instead of MOS structures makes the devices intrinsically radiation resistant.
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