Loose abrasive grinding was performed on a wide range of optical workpiece materials [single crystals of Al2O3 (sapphire), SiC, Y3Al5O12 (YAG), CaF2, and LiB3O5 (LBO); a SiO2-Al2O3-P2O5-Li2O glass-ceramic (Zerodur); and glasses of SiO2 : TiO2 (ULE), SiO2 (fused silica), and P2O5-Al2O3-K2O-BaO (phosphate)]. Using the magneto rheological finishing (MRF) taper wedge technique (where a wedge was polished on each of the ground workpieces and the resulting samples were appropriately chemically etched), the subsurface mechanical damage (SSD) characteristics were measured. The SSD depth for most of the workpiece materials was found to scale as E11/2 / H1, where E1 is the elastic modulus and H1 is the hardness of the workpiece. This material scaling is the same as that for the growth of lateral cracks, suggesting that lateral cracks are a dominant source for SSD rather than radial/median cracks, as previously proposed. Utilizing the SSD depth data from both this study and others, semiempirical relationships have been formulated, which allows for estimating the SSD depth as a function of workpiece material and important grinding parameters (such as abrasive size and applied pressure).
Laser induced damage (breakdown) initiated on the exit surface of transparent dielectric materials using nanosecond pulses creates a volume of superheated material reaching localized temperatures on the order of 1 eV and pressures on the order of 10 GPa or larger. This leads to material ejection and the formation of a crater. The volume of this superheated material depends largely on the laser parameters such as fluence and pulse duration. To elucidate the material behaviors involved, we examined the morphologies of the ejected superheated material particles and found distinctive morphologies. We hypothesize that these morphologies arise from the difference in the structure and physical properties (such as the dynamic viscosity and presence of instabilities) of the superheated material at the time of ejection of each individual particle. Some of the ejected particles are on the order of 1 µm in diameter and appear as “droplets”. Another subgroup appears to have stretched, foam-like structure that can be described as material globules interconnected via smaller in diameter columns. Such particles often contain nanometer size fibers attached on their surface. In other cases, only the globules have been preserved suggesting that they may be associated with a collapsed foam structure under the dynamic pressure as it traverses in air. These distinct features originate in the structure of the superheated material during volume boiling just prior to the ejection of the particles.
A model simulating transient optical properties during laser damage in the bulk of KDP/DKDP crystals is presented. The
model was developed and tested using as a benchmark its ability to reproduce the well-documented damage initiation
behaviors but most importantly, the salient behavior of the wavelength dependence of the damage threshold. The model
involves two phases. During phase I, the model assumes a moderate localized initial absorption that is strongly enhanced
during the laser pulse via excited state absorption and thermally driven generation of additional point defects in the
surrounding material. The model suggests that during a fraction of the pulse duration, the host material around the defect
cluster is transformed into a strong absorber that leads to significant increase of the local temperature. During phase II,
the model suggests that the excitation pathway consists mainly of one photon absorption events within a quasicontinuum
of short-lived vibronic defect states spanning the band gap that was generated after the initial localized
heating of the material due to thermal quenching of the excited state lifetimes. The width of the transition (steps)
between different number of photons is governed by the instantaneous temperature, which was estimated using the
experimental data. The model also suggests that the critical physical parameter prior to initiation of breakdown is the
conduction band electron density. This model, employing very few free parameters, for the first time is able to
quantitatively reproduce the wavelength dependence of the damage initiation threshold, and thus provides important
insight into the physical processes involved.
Controlling laser damage is essential for reliable and cost-effective operation of high energy laser systems. We will
review important optical damage precursors in silica up to UV fluences as high as 45J/cm2 (3ns) along with studies of
the damage mechanisms involved and processes to mitigate damage precursors. We have found that silica surface
damage is initiated by nano-scale precursor absorption followed by thermal coupling to the silica lattice and formation of
a laser-supported absorption front. Residual polishing compound and defect layers on fracture surfaces are primarily
responsible for optic damage below about 10J/cm2; they can be mitigated by an optimized oxide etch processes. At
fluences above about 10J/cm2, precipitates of trace impurities are responsible for damage; they can be mitigated by
eliminating the chances of impurity precipitation following wet chemical processing. Using these approaches, silica
damage densities can be reduced by many orders of magnitude allowing large increases in the maximum operating
fluences these optics see.
Interpretation of spatial and time resolved images of rear surface ns laser damage in dielectrics requires understanding of
the dynamic interaction of the incoming laser beam with the confined expanding plasma in the material. The detailed
kinetics of the plasma, involving both expansion and retraction, depends on details of reflection and absorption in the hot
material. The growth of the hot region is treated using a model previously developed to understand laser peening. The
pressure is found to scale as the square root of laser intensity and drops off slowly after energy deposition is complete.
For the conditions of our experimental observations in fused silica, our model predicts a pressure of about 9 GPa and a
surface expansion velocity of about 1.5 km/sec, in good agreement with experimental observation.
Crater formation that accompanies laser-induced damage is the result of material ejection following the rapid, localized
heating to temperatures on the order of 1 eV. The objective of this work is to compare the material ejection behavior in
fused silica and KDP crystals as captured using time-resolved shadowgraphy. These two materials are of fundamental
importance in ICF class laser systems but they also represent materials with significantly different physical properties.
We hypothesize that these different properties can affect the material ejection process.
Previous studies have identified two significant precursors of laser damage on fused silica surfaces at fluences <35 J/cm2: photoactive impurities from polishing and surface fractures. We evaluate isothermal heating as a means of remediating the defect structure associated with surface fractures. Vickers indentations are applied to silica surfaces at loads between 0.5 and 10 N, creating fracture networks. The indentations are characterized before and following thermal annealing under various time and temperature conditions using confocal time-resolved photo-luminescence (CTP) imaging, and R/1 damage testing with 3-ns, 355-nm laser pulses. Improvements in the damage thresholds with reductions in CTP intensity are observed at temperatures well below the glass transition temperature (Tg). The damage threshold on 0.5-N indentations improves from <8 to >35 J/cm2 after annealing at approximately 750°C. Larger fracture networks require longer or higher temperature treatment to achieve similar results. At an annealing temperature >1100°C, optical microscopy indicates morphological changes in some of the fractures surrounding the indentations, although remnants of the original fractures are still observed. We demonstrate the potential of using isothermal annealing to improve the laser damage resistance of silica optics, and provide a means of further understanding the physics of optical damage and mitigation.
Substrate scratches can limit the laser resistance of multilayer mirror coatings on high-peak-power laser systems. To
date, the mechanism by which substrate surface defects affect the performance of coating layers under high power
laser irradiation is not well defined. In this study, we combine experimental approaches with theoretical simulations
to delineate the correlation between laser damage resistance of coating layers and the physical properties of the
substrate surface defects including scratches. A focused ion beam technique is used to reveal the morphological
evolution of coating layers on surface scratches. Preliminary results show that coating layers initially follow the
trench morphology on the substrate surface, and as the thickness increases, gradually overcoat voids and planarize
the surface. Simulations of the electrical-field distribution of the defective layers using the finite-difference timedomain
(FDTD) method show that field intensification exists mostly near the top surface region of the coating near
convex focusing structures. The light intensification could be responsible for the reduced damage threshold.
Damage testing under 1064 nm, 3 ns laser irradiation over coating layers on substrates with designed scratches show
that damage probability and threshold of the multilayer depend on substrate scratch density and width. Our
preliminary results show that damage occurs on the region of the coating where substrate scratches reside and
etching of the substrate before coating does not seem to improve the laser damage resistance.
We compare force fields (FF's) that have been used in molecular dynamic (MD) simulations of silica in
order to assess their applicability for use in simulating IR-laser damage mitigation. Although pairwise
FF's obtained by fitting quantum mechanical calculations such as the BKS and CHIK potentials have
been shown to reproduce many of the properties of silica including the stability of silica polymorphs and
the densification of the liquid, we show that melting temperatures and fictive temperatures are much too
high. Softer empirical force fields give liquid and glass properties at experimental temperatures but may
not predict all properties important to laser mitigation experiments.
Knowing the ultimate surface morphology resulting from CO2 laser mitigation of induced laser damage is important both
for determining adequate treatment protocols, and for preventing deleterious intensification upon subsequent
illumination of downstream optics. Physical effects such as evaporation, viscous flow and densification can strongly
affect the final morphology of the treated site. Evaporation is a strong function of temperature and will play a leading
role in determining pit shapes when the evaporation rate is large, both because of material loss and redeposition. Viscous
motion of the hot molten material during heating and cooling can redistribute material due to surface tension gradients
(Marangoni effect) and vapor recoil pressure effects. Less well known, perhaps, is that silica can densify as a result of
structural relaxation, to a degree depending on the local thermal history. The specific volume shrinkage due to structural
relaxation can be mistaken for material loss due to evaporation. Unlike evaporation, however, local density change can
be reversed by post annealing. All of these effects must be taken into account to adequately describe the final
morphology and optical properties of single and multiple-pass mitigation protocols. We have investigated,
experimentally and theoretically, the significance of such densification on residual stress and under what circumstances
it can compete with evaporation in determining the ultimate post treatment surface shape. In general, understanding final
surface configurations requires taking all these factors including local structural relaxation densification, and therefore
the thermal history, into account. We find that surface depressions due to densification can dominate surface
morphology in the non-evaporative regime when peak temperatures are below 2100K.
There is a longstanding, and largely unexplained, correlation between the laser damage susceptibility
of optical components and both the surface quality of the optics, and the presence of near surface
fractures in an optic. In the present work, a combination of acid leaching, acid etching, and confocal
time resolved photoluminescence (CTP) microscopy has been used to study laser damage initiation
at indentation sites. The combination of localized polishing and variations in indentation loads
allows one to isolate and characterize the laser damage susceptibility of densified, plastically flowed
and fractured fused silica. The present results suggest that: 1) laser damage initiation and growth are
strongly correlated with fracture surfaces, while densified and plastically flowed material is
relatively benign, and 2) fracture events result in the formation of an electronically defect rich
surface layer which promotes energy transfer from the optical beam to the glass matrix.
In situ spatial and temporal surface temperature profiles of CO2 laser-heated silica were obtained using a
long wave infrared (LWIR) HgCdTe camera. Solutions to the linear diffusion equation with volumetric and surface
heating are shown to describe the temperature evolution for a range of beam powers, over which the peak surface
temperature scales linearly with power. These solutions were used with on-axis steady state and transient
experimental temperatures to extract thermal diffusivity and conductivity for a variety of materials, including silica,
spinel, sapphire, and lithium fluoride. Experimentally-derived thermal properties agreed well with reported values
and, for silica, thermal conductivity and diffusivity are shown to be approximately independent of temperature
between 300 and 2800K. While for silica our analysis based on a temperature independent thermal conductivity is
shown to be accurate, for other materials studied this treatment yields effective thermal properties that represent
reasonable approximations for laser heating. Implementation of a single-wavelength radiation measurement in the
semi-transparent regime is generally discussed, and estimates of the apparent temperature deviation from the actual
outer surface temperature are also presented. The experimental approach and the simple analysis presented yield
surface temperature measurements that can be used to validate more complex physical models, help discriminate
dominant heat transport mechanisms, and to predict temperature distribution and evolution during laser-based
material processing.
Fluoride-based wet chemical etching of fused silica optical components is useful to open up surface fractures for
diagnostic purposes, to create surface topology, and as a possible mitigation technique to remove damaged material. To
optimize the usefulness of etching, it is important to understand how the morphology of etched features changes as a
function of the amount of material removed. In this study, we present two geometric etch models that describe the
surface topology evolution as a function of the amount etched. The first model, referred to as the finite-difference etch
model, represents the surface as an array of points in space where at each time-step the points move normal to the local
surface. The second model, referred to as the surface area-volume model, more globally describes the surface evolution
relating the volume of material removed to the exposed surface area. These etch models predict growth and coalescence
of surface fractures such as those observed on scratches and ground surfaces. For typical surface fractures, simulations
show that the transverse growth of the cracks at long etch times scales with the square root of etch time or the net
material removed in agreement with experiment. The finite-difference etch model has also been applied to more complex
structures such as the etching of a CO2 laser-mitigated laser damage site. The results indicate that etching has little
effect on the initial morphology of this site implying little change in downstream scatter and modulation characteristics
upon exposure to subsequent high fluence laser light. In the second part of the study, the geometric etch model is
expanded to include fluid dynamics and mass transport. This later model serves as a foundation for understanding
related processes such as the possibility of redeposition of etch reaction products during the etching, rinsing or drying
processes.
Using high-sensitivity confocal time-resolved photoluminescence (CTP) techniques, we report an ultra-fast
photoluminescence (40ps-5ns) from impurity-free surface flaws on fused silica, including polished, indented or
fractured surfaces of fused silica, and from laser-heated evaporation pits. This fast photoluminescence (PL) is not
associated with slower point defect PL in silica which has characteristic decay times longer than 5ns. Fast PL is
excited by the single photon absorption of sub-band gap light, and is especially bright in fractures. Regions which
exhibit fast PL are strongly absorptive well below the band gap, as evidenced by a propensity to damage with 3.5eV
ns-scale laser pulses, making CTP a powerful non-destructive diagnostic for laser damage in silica. The use of CTP
to provide insights into the nature of damage precursors and to help develop and evaluate new damage mitigation
strategies will be presented.
Removal of laser-induced damage sites provides a possible mitigation pathway to improve damage resistance of coated
multilayer dielectric mirrors. In an effort to determine the optimal mitigation geometry which will not generate
secondary damage precursors, the electric field distribution within the coating layers for a variety of mitigation shapes
under different irradiation angles has been estimated using the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method. The
coating consists of twenty-four alternating layers of hafnia and silica with a quarter-wave reflector design. A conical
geometrical shape with different cone angles is investigated in the present study. Beam incident angles range from 0° to
60° at 5° increments. We find that light intensification (square of electric field, |E|2) within the multilayers depends
strongly on the beam incident direction and the cone angle. By comparing the field intensification for each cone angle
under all angles of incidence, we find that a 30° conical pit generates the least field intensification within the multilayer
film. Our results suggest that conical pits with shallow cone angles (≤ 30°) can be used as potential optimal mitigation
structures.
KEYWORDS: Laser induced damage, Silica, Current controlled current source, Laser optics, Optical damage, High power lasers, Laser systems engineering, Laser irradiation, Laser damage threshold
Laser-induced growth of optical damage often determines the useful lifetime of an optic in a high power laser system. We
have extended our previous work on growth of laser damage in fused silica with simultaneous 351 nm and 1053 nm laser
irradiation by measuring the threshold for growth with various ratios of 351 nm and 1053 nm fluence. Previously we reported
that when growth occurs, the growth rate is determined by the total fluence. We now find that the threshold for growth is
dependent on both the magnitude of the 351 nm fluence as well as the ratio of the 351 nm fluence to the 1053 nm fluence.
Furthermore, the data suggests that under certain conditions the 1053 nm fluence does not contribute to the growth.
Laser-induced damage initiation in silica has been shown to follow a power-law behavior with respect to
pulse-length. Models based on thermal diffusion physics can successfully predict this scaling and the effect
of pulse shape for pulses between about 3ns and 10ns. In this work we use sophisticated new measurement
techniques and novel pulse shape experiments to test the limits of this scaling. We show that simple pulse
length scaling fails for pulses below about 3ns. Furthermore, double pulse initiation experiments suggest
that energy absorbed by the first pulse is lost on time scales much shorter than would be predicted for
thermal diffusion. This time scale for energy loss can be strongly modulated by maintaining a small but
non-zero intensity between the pulses. By producing damage with various pulse shapes and pulse trains it is
demonstrated that the properties of any hypothetical thermal absorber become highly constrained.
We present S/1 and R/1 test results on unconditioned and 355 nm (3ω), 500 ps laser conditioned DKDP. We find up to ~2.5X improvement in fluence in the S/1 performance after 3ω, 500 ps conditioning to 5 J/cm2. For the first time, we observe a shift to higher fluences in the R/1 results for DKDP at 3ω, 7 ns due to 500 ps laser conditioning. The S/1 results are compared to ρ(Φ) results previously measured on the same DKDP crystal [1]. A consistent behavior in fluence was found between the S/1 and ρ(Φ) results for unconditioned and 500 ps conditioned DKDP. We were successful at using Poisson statistics to derive a connection between the S/1 and ρ(Φ) results that could be tested with our data sets by trying to predict the shape of the ρ(Φ) curve. The value for the power dependence on fluence of ρ(Φ) derived from the S/1 data was ~11 ± 50%. The results presented and discussed here imply a strong correlation between the damage probability (S/1) test and ρ(Φ). We find a consistent description of the two test types in terms of a power law ρ(Φ) and that this basic shape held for all cases, i.e. the shape was invariant between unconditioned and conditioned results.
Identification and spatial registration of laser-induced damage relative to incident fluence profiles is often
required to characterize the damage properties of laser optics near damage threshold. Of particular interest
in inertial confinement laser systems are large aperture beam damage tests (>1cm2) where the number of
initiated damage sites for Φ>14J/cm2 can approach 105-106, requiring automatic microscopy counting to
locate and register individual damage sites. However, as was shown for the case of bacteria counting in
biology decades ago, random overlapping or 'clumping' prevents accurate counting of Poisson-distributed
objects at high densities, and must be accounted for if the underlying statistics are to be understood. In this
work we analyze the effect of random clumping on damage initiation density estimates at fluences above
damage threshold. The parameter ψ=aρ= ρ/ρ0, where a=1/ ρ0 is the mean damage site area and ρ is the mean number density, is used to characterize the onset of clumping, and approximations based on a simple model are used to derive an expression for clumped damage density vs. fluence and damage site size. The influence of the uncorrected ρ vs. Φ curve on damage initiation probability predictions is also discussed.
Laser-induced breakdown in the bulk of transparent dielectric materials is associated with the generation of
extreme localized conditions of temperatures and pressures. In this work, we perform pump and probe damage
testing experiments to investigate the evolution of transient absorption by the host material arising from modifications following confined laser energy deposition in fused silica and DKDP materials. Specifically, we measure
the size of the damage sites observed in the region of spatial overlap between the pump and probe pulses versus
probe time delay and energy. Results of this proof-of-principle experimental work confirm that material
modifications under extreme conditions created during a damage event include transient optical absorption. In
addition, we found that the relaxation times of the induced absorption are very distinct for DKDP and SiO2
even under identical excitation conditions, on the order of 100 ns and 100 μs, respectively.
Currently, most of our thinking about the defects responsible for initiating laser damage considers them as featureless
absorbers. However, an increasing body of evidence, particularly involving multi-wavelength irradiation, suggests
electronic structure of damage initiators is important in determining both initiation and conditioning behaviors in KDP.
The effective absorption coefficient of energy under multi-wavelength irradiation cannot be accounted for by a
structureless absorber, but is consistent with an initiator with a multi-level structure. We outline the evidence and assess
the ability of such a simple multi-level model to explain these and other experimentally observed behaviors.
Growth of laser initiated damage plays a major role in determining optics lifetime in high power laser systems. Previous
measurements have established that the lateral diameter grows exponentially. Knowledge of the growth of the site in the
propagation direction is also important, especially so when considering techniques designed to mitigate damage growth,
where it is required to reach all the subsurface damage. In this work, we present data on both the diameter and the depth
of a growing exit surface damage sites in fused silica. Measured growth rates with both 351 nm illumination and with
combined 351 nm and 1054 nm illumination are discussed.
J. Adams, J. Jarboe, C. Carr, M. Feit, R. Hackel, J. Halpin, J. Honig, L. Lane, R. Luthi, J. Peterson, D. Ravizza, F. Ravizza, A. Rubenchik, W. Sell, J. Vickers, T. Weiland, T. Wennberg, D. Willard, M. Yeoman
Previous work [1] has shown the optimum pulse length range for laser-conditioning tripler-cut DKDP with 355 nm (3ω)
light lies between 200 ps and 900 ps for damage initiated at 3 ns. A 3ω, 500 ps (500 ps) table-top laser system has been
built at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) [2] to take advantage of this optimal conditioning pulse length
range. This study evaluates parameters important for practically utilizing this laser as a raster-scan conditioning laser
and for determining the effectiveness of various conditioning protocols. Damage density vs. test fluence (ρ(Φ) was
measured for unconditioned and 500-ps laser-conditioned (conditioned) DKDP with 3ω, 3 ns (3 ns) test pulses. We find
a 2.5X improvement in fluence in the 3 ns ρ(Φ) after conditioning with 500 ps pulses to 5 J/cm2. We further determine
that the rate of improvement in ρ(Φ)decreases at the higher conditioning fluences (i.e. 3.5 - 5 J/cm2). Single-shot
damage threshold experiments at 500 ps were used to determine the starting fluence for our 500 ps conditioning ramps.
We find 0%, 70%, and 100% single-shot damage probability fluences of 4, 4.5, and 5 J/cm2, respectively at 500 ps. Bulk
damage size distributions created at 3 ns are presented for unconditioned and conditioned DKDP. The range of
diameters of bulk damage sites (pinpoints) in unconditioned DKDP is found to be 4.6 ± 4.4 µm in agreement with
previous results. Also, we observe no apparent difference in the bulk damage size distributions between unconditioned
and conditioned DKDP for testing at 3 ns.
We use an infrared thermal imaging system in combination with a fluorescence microscope to map the dynamics
of the local surface temperature and fluorescence intensity under cw, UV excitation of laser-modified fused silica
within a damage site. Based on a thermal diffusion model, we estimate the energy deposited via linear absorption
mechanisms and derive the linear absorption coefficient of the modified material. The results indicate that the
damage growth mechanism is not entirely based on linear absorption. Specifically, the absorption cross-section
derived above would prove insuffcient to cause a significant increase in the temperature of the modified material
under nanosecond, pulsed excitation (via linear absorption at ICF laser fluences). In addition, irreversible changes
in the absorption cross-section following extended cw, UV laser exposure were observed.
The presence of a nearby free surface means the morphology of surface damage sites is inevitably different from that of bulk damage sites. In both, the material is subject to compressive stress waves from the initial release of laser energy. However, reflection at the free surface leads to a tensile stress wave. Because material strength is much less against tension than compression, surface sites will be more extensive than bulk sites, all else being equal. We analyze the extent of damage as a function of the amount and position of energy released and compare to experimental results.
Growth of laser initiated damage is a potential lifetime limiter of laser optics. While laser initiated damage occurs most often on the exit surface of optical components, some damage sites can occur on the input surface. We have investigated the growth of laser initiated damage in fused silica when the damage occurs on the input surface of the optic. We have measured both the threshold for growth as well as the lateral growth rate at 351 nm. The lateral growth of damage on the input surface is best described as having a linear dependence on shot number. The rate of growth has a linear dependence on fluence, with an extrapolated threshold of approximately 6 J/cm2. This behavior will be contrasted to growth of damage when located on the exit surface. The behavior will be compared to growth of input surface damage when the irradiation wavelength is 1053 nm or 527 nm.
Managing subsurface damage during the shaping process and removing subsurface damage during the polishing process is essential in the production of low damage density optical components, such as those required for use on high peak power lasers. Removal of subsurface damage, during the polishing process, requires polishing to a depth which is greater than the depth of the residual cracks present following the shaping process. To successfully manage, and ultimately remove subsurface damage, understanding the distribution and character of fractures in the subsurface region introduced during fabrication process is important. We have characterized the depth and morphology of subsurface fractures present following fixed abrasive and loose abrasive grinding processes. At shallow depths lateral cracks and an overlapping series of trailing indentation fractures were found to be present. At greater depths, subsurface damage consists of a series of trailing indentation fractures. The area density of trailing fractures changes as a function of depth, however the length and shape of individual cracks remain nearly constant for a given grinding process. We have developed and applied a model to interpret the depth and crack length distributions of subsurface surface damage in terms of key variables including abrasive size and load.
The Feit-Rubenchik size-selection damage model has been extended in a number of ways. More realistic thermal deposition profiles have been added. Non-spherical shapes (rods and plates) have been considered, with allowance for their orientation dependence. Random variations have been taken into account. An explicit form for the change of absorptivity with precursor size has been added. A simulation tool called GIDGET has been built to allow adjustment of the many possible parameters in order to fit experimental data of initiation density as a function of fluence and pulse duration. The result is a set of constraints on the possible properties of initiation precursors.
We summarize recent investigations of the density and morphology of bulk damage in KDP crystals as a function of pulse duration, temporal profile, wavelength, and energy fluence. As previously reported by Runkel et al.1, we also find that the size of bulk damage sites varies roughly linearly with pulse duration for pulses between 1 ns and 9 ns. However this trend no longer applies at pulse durations below 1 ns. Experiments measuring the damage density and size distribution as a function of wavelength confirm many previous works which indicated a strong dependence of damage density with wavelength. However, we also find that the size of damage sites is relatively insensitive to wavelength. Further we see damage due to Flat-In-Time (FIT) pulses has different pulse length and fluence dependence than Gaussian pulses. We demonstrate that a simple thermal diffusion model can account for observed differences in damage densities due to square and Gaussian temporally shaped pulses of equal fluence. Moreover, we show that the key laser parameter governing size of the bulk damage sites is the length of time the pulse remains above a specific intensity. The different dependences of damage density and damage site size on laser parameters suggest different absorption mechanisms early and late in the damaging pulse.
An experimental technique has been utilized to measure the variation of bulk damage scatter with damaging fluence in plates of KH2PO4 (KDP) crystals. Bulk damage in unconditioned and laser-conditioned doubler-cut KDP crystals has been studied using 527 nm (2ω) light at pulselengths of 0.3 - 10 ns. It is found that there is less scatter due to damage at fixed fluence for longer pulselengths. In particular, there is ~4X increase in fluence for equivalent scatter for damage at 2ω, 10 ns as compared to 0.30 ns in unconditioned KDP. The results for the unconditioned and conditioned KDP show that for all the pulselengths the scatter due to the bulk damage is a strong function of the damaging fluence (θ~5). It is determined that the 2ω fluence pulselength-scaling for equivalent bulk damage scatter in unconditioned KDP varies as τ0.30±0.11 and in 3ω, 3ns ramp-conditioned KDP varies as τ0.27±0.14. The effectiveness of 2ω and 3ω laser conditioning at pulselengths in the range of 0.30-23 ns for damage induced 2ω, 3 ns is analyzed in terms of scatter. For the protocols tested (i.e. peak conditioning irradiance, etc.), the 3ω, 300 ps conditioning to a peak fluence of 3 J/cm2 had the best performance under 2ω, 3 ns testing. The general trend in the performance of the conditioning protocols was shorter wavelength and shorter pulselength appear to produce better conditioning for testing at 2ω, 3 ns.
Laser conditioning, i.e. pre-exposure to less than damaging laser fluence, has been shown to improve the damage resistance of KDP/DKDP frequency conversion crystals. We have extended our damage model, small absorbing precursors with a distribution of sizes, to describe various damage related properties such as damage density and effects of laser conditioning in crystals. The model assumes the rate limiting process for both initiation and conditioning depends on temperature and that separate threshold temperatures exist for either conditioning or damage initiation to occur. This is reasonable in KDP/DKDP since the melting temperature is far below the temperatures associated with plasma formation and damage events. This model is capable of accounting for some recently observed damage-conditioning behaviors.
In laser systems using frequency conversion, multiple wavelengths will be present on optical components. We have investigated the growth of laser initiated damage in fused silica in the presence of multiple wavelengths. In particular, we measured growth at 351 nm in the presence of 1053 nm near the threshold of growth for 351 nm alone. The data shows that the sum fluence determines the onset of growth as well as the growth rate. The measured growth coefficient is consistent with all the energy being delivered at 351 nm. Additionally, we measured growth at 527 nm in the presence of 1053 nm near the threshold of growth at 527 nm alone. In this case, the sum fluence also determines the growth coefficient but the rate is consistent with all the energy being delivered at 1053 nm. We present the measurements and discuss possible reasons for the behavior.
The effective lifetime of a laser optic is limited by both laser-induced damage and the subsequent growth of laser initiated damage sites. We have measured the growth rate of laser-induced damage on polished fused silica surfaces in 10 torr of air at 1053 nm at 10 ns. The data shows exponential growth in the lateral size of the damage site with shot number above a threshold fluence. The size of the initial damage influences the threshold for growth. We will compare the growth rates for input and output surface damage. Possible reasons for the observed growth behavior are discussed.
Spectral emission from optical breakdown in the bulk of a transparent dielectric contains information about the nature of the breakdown medium. We have made time resolved measurements of the breakdown induced emission caused by nanosecond and femtosecond infrared laser pulses. We previously demonstrated that the emission due to ns pulses is blackbody in nature allowing determination of the fireball temperature and pressure during and after the damage event. The emission due to femtosecond pulse breakdown is not blackbody in nature; two different spectral distributions being noted. In one case, the peak spectral distribution occurs at the second harmonic of the incident radiation, in the other the distribution is broader and flatter and presumably due to continuum generation. The differences between ns and fs breakdown emission can be explained by the differing breakdown region geometries for the two pulse durations. The possibility to use spectral emission as a diagnostic of the emission region morphology will be discussed.
Bulk damage sites in frequency conversion crystals scatter and/or absorb laser light leading to interference and downstream intensification .We find that laser induced bulk damage sites in DKDP exhibit a "shell" of structurally and/or chemically modified material surrounding a central core as indicated by SEM and optical micrographs and micro Raman spectral maps. We hypothesize that the modified material has been shock wave densified and estimate the amount of densification and its effect on scattering. A simple model indicates that densification of several percent is likely and that the scattering cross section may be larger than the geometric area of the inner core by an order of magnitude.
An experimental technique has been developed to measure the damage density ρ(Φ) variation with fluence from scatter maps of bulk damage sites in plates of KD2PO4 (DKDP) crystals combined with calibrated images of the damaging beam's spatial profile. Unconditioned bulk damage in tripler-cut DKDP crystals has been studied using 351 nm (3ω) light at pulse lengths of 0.055, 0.091, 0.30, 0.86, 2.6, and 10 ns. It is found that there is less scatter due to damage at fixed fluence for longer pulse lengths. The results also show that for all the pulse lengths the scatter due to damage is a strong function of the damaging fluence. It is determined that the pulse length scaling for bulk damage scatter in unconditioned DKDP material varies as τ0.24±0.05 over two orders of magnitude of pulse lengths. The effectiveness of 3ω laser conditioning at pulse lengths of 0.055, 0.096, 0.30, 0.86, 3.5, and 23 ns is analyzed in term of damage density ρ(Φ) at 3ω, 2.6 ns. The 860 ps conditioning to a peak irradiance of 7 GW/cm2 had the best performance under 3ω, 2.6 ns testing. It is shown that the optimal conditioning pulse length appears to lies in the range from 0.3 to 1 ns with a low sensitivity of 0.5 J/cm2/ns to the exact pulse length.
A process whereby laser-initiated surface damage on KDP/DKDP optics is removed by spot micro-machining using a high-speed drill and a single-crystal diamond bit, is shown to mitigate damage growth for subsequent laser shots. Our tests show that machined dimples on both surfaces of an AR coated doubler (KDP) crystal are stable, for 526 nm, ~3.2 ns pulses at ~12 J/cm2 fluences. Other tests also confirmed that the machined dimples on both surfaces of an AR coated tripler (DKDP) crystal are stable, for 351 nm, ~3 ns pulses at ~8 J/cm2. We have demonstrated successful mitigation of laser-initiated surface damage sites as large as 0.14 mm diameter on DKDP, for up to 1000 shots at 351 nm, 13 J/cm2, ~11 ns pulse length, and up to 10 shots at 351 nm, 8 J/cm2, 3 ns. Details of the method are presented, including estimates for the heat generated during micromachining and a plan to implement this method to treat pre-initiated or retrieved-from-service, large-scale optics for use in high-peak-power laser applications.
Cracks can affect laser damage susceptibility in three ways. These are field intensification due to interference, enhanced absorption due to trapped material in the cracks, and increased mechanical weakness. Enhanced absorption is the most important effect.
A numerical model of CO2 laser mitigation of damage growth in fused silica has been constructed that accounts for laser energy absorption, heat conduction, radiation transport, evaporation of fused silica and thermally induced stresses. This model will be used to understand scaling issues and effects of pulse and beam shapes on material removal, temperatures reached and stresses generated. Initial calculations show good agreement of simulated and measured material removal. The model has also been applied to LG-770 glass as a prototype red blocker material.
Laser damage of large optics initiates at material imperfections. Absorbers of very small, nanoscale size are possible initiators. We will analyze experimental implications of assuming that the damage is initiated by a size distribution of nanoabsorbers. We will demonstrate that the model predicts damage fluence pulselength scaling consistent with experiment. The size distribution of nanoabsorbers is related to the resulting damage site density and to the shape of the damage probability curve (S-curve). Conditioning of KDP crystals can be explained within the same model. The relative efficiency of various conditioning strategies is discussed.
The high-energy/high-power section of the NIF laser system contains 7360 meter-scale optics. Advanced optical
materials and fabrication technologies needed to manufacture the NIF optics have been developed and put into
production at key vendor sites. Production rates are up to 20 times faster and per-optic costs 5 times lower than could be
achieved prior to the NIF. In addition, the optics manufactured for NIF are better than specification giving laser
performance better than the design. A suite of custom metrology tools have been designed, built and installed at the
vendor sites to verify compliance with NIF optical specifications. A brief description of the NIF optical wavefront
specifications for the glass and crystal optics is presented. The wavefront specifications span a continuous range of
spatial scale-lengths from 10 μm to 0.5 m (full aperture). We have continued our multi-year research effort to improve
the lifetime (i.e. damage resistance) of bulk optical materials, finished optical surfaces and multi-layer dielectric
coatings. New methods for post-processing the completed optic to improve the damage resistance have been developed
and made operational. This includes laser conditioning of coatings, glass surfaces and bulk KDP and DKDP and well as
raster and full aperture defect mapping systems. Research on damage mechanisms continues to drive the development
of even better optical materials.
We report on the frist experimental demonstration of a scalable fiber laser approach based on phase-locking multiple gain cores in an antiguided structure. A novel fabrication technology is used with soft glass components to construct the multie core fiber used in our experiments. The waveguide region is rectangular in shape and comprised of a periodic sequence of gain and no-gain segments having nearly uniform refractive index. The rectangular waveguide is itself embedded in a lower refractive index cladding region. Experimental resutls confirm taht our five-core Nd doped glass prototyep structure runs predominately in two spatial antiguided modes as predicted by our modeling.
The raster scan technique is used for large optics damage tests and laser conditioning. We show that the "effective area" concept enables the possibility to compare various scanning schemes and to use raster scan experiments for NIF optics damage prediction. It is shown that the hexagonal lattice of laser beam imprints yields optimal use of each shot for most of the typically used parameters. The effects of beam fluence fluctuations and pointing inaccuracies on experiments are evaluated. To analyze raster scan conditioning experiments, we introduce the concept of "effective dose," i.e. total dose averaged over a unit cell of the scan lattice. This allows various scanning schemes to be compared quantitatively.
Theoretical models for heating, evaporation, material flow, and stress and strain generation accompanying CO2 laser damage mitigation and surface treatment of fused silica are developed to aid understanding of scaling with process parameters. We find that lateral nonlinear heat transport is an important cooling mechanism, more significant than evaporative cooling. Scaling laws relating experiments with different set of parameters are presented. Transverse conduction, together with the increased thermal conductivity at high temperatures, allows a gentle evaporation regime at low laser intensity in which the rate can be controlled via laser fluence. For higher laser intensity, recoil momentum imparted by rapid evaporation generates pressure, which can lead to transverse flow of the melted material. Only a very thin layer can flow because viscosity increases rapidly with depth. Evaporation and flow are subject to instabilities that can impact surace quality, especially surface flatness, if large areas are processed. Also material flow can heal cracks and improve material quality. Analysis of stress indicates that maximal tensile streses of order 0.1 GPa, comparable to the tensile strength, can be generated.
We report a summary of the surface damage, growth mitigation effort at 3(omega) for fused silica optics at LLNL. The objective was to experimentally validate selected methods that could be applied to pre-initiated or retrieved-from- service optics, to stop further damage growth. A specific goal was to obtain sufficient data and information of successful methods for fused silica optics to select a single approach for processing NIF optics. This paper includes the test results and the evaluation thereof, for several mitigation methods for fused silica. The mitigation methods tested in this study are wet chemical etching, cold plasma etching, CO2 laser processing, and micro-flame torch processing. We found that CO2 laser processing produces the most significant and consistent results to halt laser-induced surface damage growth on fused silica. We recorded successful mitigation of the growth of laser-induced surface damage sites as large as 0.5-mm diameter, for 1000 shots at fluences in the range of 8 to 13 J/cm2. We obtained sufficient data for elimination of damage growth using CO2 laser processing on sub-aperture representative optics, to proceed with application to full- scale NIF optics.
Embedded gold and mechanical deformation in silica were used to investigate initiation of laser-induced damage at 355 nm (7.6 ns). The nanoparticle-covered surfaces were coated with between 0 and 500 nm of SiO2 by e-beam deposition. The threshold for observable damage and initiation site morphology for these engineered surfaces was determined. The gold nanoparticle coated surfaces with 500 nm SiO2 coating exhibited pinpoint damage threshold of <0.7 J/cm2 determined by light scattering and Nomarski microscopy. The gold nanoparticle coated surfaces with the 100 nm SiO2 coatings exhibited what nominally appeared to be film exfoliation damage threshold of 19 J/cm2 via light scattering and Nomarski microscopy. With atomic force microscopy pinholes could be detected at fluences greater than 7 J/cm2 and blisters at fluences greater than 3 J/cm2 on the 100-nm-coated surfaces. A series of mechanical indents and scratches were made in the fused silica substrates using a non-indentor. Plastic deformation without cracking led to damage thresholds of approximately 25 J/cm2, whereas indents and scratches with cracking led to damage thresholds of only approximately 5 J/cm2. Particularly illuminating was the deterministic damage of scratches at the deepest end of the scratch, as if the scratch acted as a waveguide.
A program to identify and eliminate the causes of UV laser- induced damage and growth in fused silica and DKDP has developed methods to extend optics lifetimes for large- aperture, high-peak-power, UV lasers such as the National Ignition Facility (NIF). Issues included polish-related surface damage initiation and growth on fused silica and DKDP, bulk inclusions in fused silica, pinpoint bulk damage in DKDP, and UV-induced surface degradation in fused silica and DKDP in a vacuum. Approaches included an understanding of the mechanism of the damage, incremental improvements to existing fabrication technology, and feasibility studies of non-traditional fabrication technologies. Status and success of these various approaches are reviewed. Improvements were made in reducing surface damage initiation and eliminating growth for fused silica by improved polishing and post- processing steps, and improved analytical techniques are providing insights into mechanisms of DKDP damage. The NIF final optics hardware has been designed to enable easy retrieval, surface-damage mitigation, and recycling of optics.
We have investigated the flash of light that accompanies laser damage using time-resolved spectroscopy. Damage events were initiated in the bulk of both fused silica and DKDP crystals with 355-nm 3-ns pulsed radiation. Spectra from the accompanying flash were recorded in the 200-500 nm wavelength range with 5-ns temporal resolution. Ten ns following damage initiation, the spectra were found to be roughly blackbody with temperatures on the order of 5000 K to 7000 K, depending on the material studied and excitation energy used. The observed temperatures and cooling rates can be related to the size and electron density of the plasma fireball that initiates the damage event.
Laser damage of large fused silica optics initiates at imperfections. Possible initiation mechanisms are considered. We demonstrate that a model based on nanoparticle explosions is consistent with the observed initiation craters. Possible mechanisms for growth upon subsequent laser irradiation, including material modification and laser intensification, are discussed. Large aperture experiments indicate an exponential increase in damage size with number of laser shots. Physical processes associated with this growth and a qualitative explanation of self-accelerated growth is presented. Rapid growth necessitates damage growth mitigation techniques. Several possible mitigation techniques are mentioned, with special emphasis on CO2 processing. Analysis of material evaporation, crack healing, and thermally induced stress are presented.
High power laser pulses can produce damage in high quality fused silica optics that can lead to its eventual obscuration and failure. Current models suggest the initiation of a plasma detonation due to absorbing initiators and defects, leading to the formation of shock waves. Recent experiments have found a densified layer at the bottom of damage sites, as evidence of the laser-damage model. We have studied the propagation of shock waves through fused silica using molecular dynamics. These simulations show drastic modifications in the structure and topology of the network, in agreement with experimental observations.
The effective lifetime of optics in the UV is limited both by laser induced damage and the subsequent growth of laser initiated damage sites. We have measured the growth rate of laser induced damage in fused silica in both air and vacuum. The data shows exponential growth in the lateral size of the damage site with shot number above threshold fluence. The concurrent growth in depth follows a linear dependence with shot number. The size of the initial damage influences the threshold for growth; the morphology of the initial site depends strongly on the initiating fluence. We have found only a weak dependence on pulse length for growth rate. Low fluence conditioning in air may delay the onset of growth. Most of the work has been on bare substrates but the presence of a sol-gel AR coating has no significant effect.
Results are reported from recently performed bulk-damage, pulse-scaling experiments on DKDP tripler samples taken from NIF-size, rapid-growth boule BD7. The tests were performed on LLNL's Optical Sciences Laser. A matrix of samples was exposed to single shots at 351 nm (3(omega) ) with average fluences from 4 to 8 J/cm2 for pulse durations of 1, 3 and 10 ns. The damage sites were scatter-mapped after testing to determine the damage evolution as a function of local beam fluence. The average bulk damage microcavity (pinpoint) density varied nearly linearly with fluence with peak values of approximately 16,000 pp/mm3 at 1 ns, 10,000 pp/mm3 at 3 ns and 400 pp/mm3 at 10 ns for fluences in the 8-10 J/cm2 range. The average size of a pinpoint was 10(+14,-9) micrometers at 1 ns, 37+/- 20 micrometers at 3 ns and approximately 110 micrometers at 10 ns, although all pulse durations produced pinpoints with a wide distribution of sizes. Analysis of the pinpoint density data yielded pulse-scaling behavior of t0.35. Significant planar cracking around the pinpoint as was observed for the 10 ns case but not for the 1 and 3 ns pulses. Crack formation around pinpoints has also been observed frequently for Zeus ADT tests at approximately 8 ns. The high pinpoint densities also lead to significant eruption of near-surface bulk damage. Measurements of the damage site area for surface and bulk gave ratios (Asurf/Abulk) of 2:1 at 1 ns, 7:1 at 3 ns and 110:1 at 10 ns.
General physical relations connect the expected size and depth of laser damage induced craters to absorbed laser energy and to the strength of the material. In general, for small absorbers and instantaneous energy release, one expects three regions of interest. First is an inner region in which material is subjected to high pressure and temperature, pulverized and ejected. The resultant crater morphology will appear melted. A second region, outside the first, exhibits material removal due to spallation, which occurs when a shock wave is reflected at the free surface. The crater surface in this region will appear fractured. Finally, there is an outermost region where stresses are strong enough to crack material, but not to eject it. These regions are described theoretically and compared to representative observed craters in fused silica.
Recent LLNL experiments reported elsewhere at this conference explored the pulse length dependence of 351 nm bulk damage incidence in DKDP. The results found are consistent, in part, with a model in which a distribution of small bulk initiators is assumed to exist in the crystal, and the damage threshold is determined by reaching a critical temperature. The observed pulse length dependence can be explained as being set by the most probable defect capable of causing damage at a given pulse length. Analysis of obscuration in side illuminated images of the damaged region yields estimates of the damage site distributions that are in reasonable agreement with the distributions experimentally directly estimated.
A Mach-Zehnder interferometer was used for analysis of pressure waves generated by ultrashort laser pulse ablation of water. It was found that the shock wave generated by plasma formation rapidly decays to an acoustic wave. Both experimental and theoretical studies demonstrated that the energy transfer to the mechanical shock was less than 1%.
The use of femtosecond lasers allows materials processing of practically any material with extremely high precision and minimal collateral damage. Advantages over conventional laser machining (using pulses longer than a few tens of picoseconds) are realized by depositing the laser energy into the electrons of the material on a time scale short compared to the transfer time of this energy to the bulk of the material, resulting in increased ablation efficiency and negligible shock or thermal stress. The improvement in the morphology by using femtosecond pulses rather than nanosecond pulses has been studied in numerous materials from biological materials to dielectrics to metals. During the drilling process, we have observed the onset of small channels which drill faster than the surrounding material.
Expansion of ablation plumes created by intense ultrashort lasers is determined by various complicated physical processes which have very different spatial and time scales. Since complete simulation by one model is practically impossible, we suggest using two models describing initial and final stages that can be matched at an intermediate time. The proposed modeling procedure connects laser parameters to plume properties far away from the ablation spot. Laser material interaction and beginning of the expansion are simulated with a one-dimensional hydrodynamics code and the final stage is modeled using an analytical solution for an expanding three- dimensional ellipsoidal gas cloud.
We describe simulations of experiments invovling laser illumination of a metallic knife edge in the Optical Sciences Laboratory (OSL) at LLNL, and pinhole closure in the Beamlet experiment at LLNL. The plasma evolution is modeled via LASNEX. In OSL, the calculated phases of a probe beam are found to exhibit the same behavior as in experiment but to be consistently larger. The motion of a given phase contour tends to decelerate at high intensities. At fixed intensity, the speed decreases with atomic mass. We then calculate the plasma associated with 4-leaf pinholes on the Beamlet transport spatial filter. We employ a new propagation code to follow a realistic input beam through the entire spatial filter, including the plasmas. The detailed behavior of the output wavefronts is obtained. We show how closure depends on the orientation and material of the pinholes blades. As observed in experiment, a diamond orientation is preferable to a square orientation, and tantalum performs better than stainless steel.
Fused silica windows were artificially contaminated to estimate the resistance of target chamber debris shields against laser damage during NIF operation. Uniform contamination thin films were prepared by sputtering various materials. The loss of transmission of the samples was first measured. They were then tested at 355 nm in air with an 8- ns Nd:YAG laser. The damage morphologies were characterized by Nomarski optical microscopy and SEM. Both theory and experiments showed that metal contamination for films as thin as 1 nm leads to a substantial los of transmission. The laser damage resistance dropped very uniformly across the entire surface. The damage morphology characterization showed that contrary to clean silica, metal coated samples did not produce pits on the surface, B4C coated silica, on the other hand, led to a higher density of such damage pits. A model for light absorption in the thin film was coupled with a simple heat deposition and diffusion model to perform preliminary theoretical estimates of damage thresholds. The estimates of the loss due to light absorption and reflection pointed out significant differences between metals. The damage threshold predictions were in qualitative agreement with experimental measurements.
Understanding the 'extreme statistics' of failure at a weak link allows extrapolation of the results of small area laser damage tests to predict damage levels for the large areas pertinent to NIF/LMJ. Conceptually, it is important to focus on the fluence dependence of the surface density of damage sites. Results of different types of damage tests can be reported in terms of this sample characteristic property.
Laser modulated scattering (LMS) is introduced as a non- destruction evaluation tool for defect inspection and characterization of optical surface sand thin film coatings. It allows simultaneous measurement of the DC and AC scattering signals of a probe laser beam from an optical surface. by comparison between the DC and AC scattering signals, one can differentiate absorptive defects from non- absorptive ones. This paper describes the principle of the LMS technique and the experimental setup, and illustrates examples on using LMS as a tool for nondestructive evaluation of high quality optics.
A reliable metric is required to describe the damage resistance of large aperture 3(omega) transmissive optics for the NIF laser. The trend from single site testing to the more statistically valid Gaussian scanning test requires a well modeled experimental procedure, accurate monitoring of the test parameters, and careful interpretation of the resulting volumes of data. The methods described here provide reliable quality assurance data, as well as intrinsic damage concentration information used to predict the performance expected under use conditions. This paper describe the equipment, test procedure, and data analysis used to evaluate large aperture 3(omega) optics for the NIF laser.
A novel photothermal microscopy (PTM) is developed which uses only one laser beam, working as both the pump and the probe. The principle of this single-beam PTM is based on the detection of the second harmonic component of the laser modulated scattering (LMS) signal. This component has a linear dependence on the optical absorptance of the tested area and a quadratic dependence on the pump laser power. Using a pump laser at the wavelengths of 514.5- and 532-nm high-resolution photothermal scans are performed for polished fused silica surfaces and a HfO2/SiO2 multilayer coatings. The results are compared with those from the traditional two-beam PTM mapping. It is demonstrated that the single-beam PTM is more user-friendly than conventional two-beam PTM and, offers a higher spatial resolution for defect detection.
For the aggressive fluence requirements of the NIF laser, some level of laser-induced damage to the large 351 nm final optics is inevitable. Planning and utilization of NIF therefore requires reliable prediction of the functional degradation of the final optics. Laser damage test are typically carried out with Gaussian beams on relatively small test ares. The test yield a damage probability vs. energy fluence relation. These damage probabilities are shown to depend on both the beam fluence distribution and the size of area tested. Thus, some analysis is necessary in order to use these test results to determine expected damage levels for large aperture optics. We present a statistical approach which interprets the damage probability in terms of an underlying intrinsic surface density of damaging defects. This allows extrapolation of test results to different sized areas and different beam shapes. The defect density is found to vary as a power of the fluence.
Plasma luminescence spectroscopy was used for precise ablation of bone tissue without damaging nearby soft tissue using an ultrashort pulse laser. Strong contrast of the luminescence spectra between bone marrow and spinal cord provided the real time feedback control so bone tissue is selectively ablated while preserving the spinal cord.
Temperature and shock wave propagation in water (as a model of tissue) irradiated by sub-picosecond and nanosecond pulses were modeled. The high temperature and pressure generated during sub-picosecond irradiation did not penetrate deeply into the water due to quickly ejected plasma while significant pressure and temperature increases were observed in deep regions with nanosecond pulses. Knowing that the sub- picosecond pulses are effective for tissue ablation, additional studies were done to examine the effect of short pulse widths (less than 20 ps). Ablation threshold, temperature rise and ablation crater quality on human dentine were investigated for different pulse widths in the range of 150 fs - 20 ps. The ablation threshold fluence was approximately 4 times higher with 20 ps pulses than with 150 fs pulses but the quality of the alation craters were not significantly different in this pulse width range.
A set of fused silica windows were artificially contaminated by sputtering various thin film materials onto the surface to simulate target chamber contamination of high fluence optical components. The samples were then tested 1/1 and N/1 at 355 nm in air and vacuum with a 3- ns Nd:YAG laser to measure the damage threshold as a function of film thickness and film composition. The damage morphologies were characterized by Nomarski optical microscopy and SEM. The results show that thin film contamination leads to a decrease in damage threshold. The test also show a difference in damage behavior between air and vacuum. The results were compared to a model of the absorption of laser light in the film, shockwave generation and reflection, and heating dependence on film composition and thickness.
Starting from the absorption of laser energy at a subsurface nanoparticle in fused silica, we simulate the consequent buildup of stresses and resulting mechanical material damage. The simulation indicates the formation of micropits with size comparable to a wavelength, similar to experimental observation. Possible mechanism for enhanced local light absorption are discussed.
Assuming the observed scaling of laser damage threshold fluence with the (almost) square root of pulse duration is due to thermal conduction, we develop a formalism for directly comparing pulses of different shapes and durations. We find, for example, that a top hat pulse leads to 15% higher temperature (presumably 15% lower damage threshold) than a Gaussian pulse of the same fluence. We also find that the damage threshold of the expected NIF type pulse should be estimated from a Gaussian pulse with the same peak intensity. We find that the deviation of the scaling of damage threshold from square root of pulse duration has contributions from both the small but finite size of laser energy absorbers and from the temperature dependence of thermal properties. Keywords: laser damage, damage threshold, scaling, thermal conduction
The laser architecture of the NIF beamlines requires small- area beam dumps to safely absorb back reflections from the output and leakage through the PEPC switch. The problems presented by these beam dumps are that fluences they must absorb are very large, beyond the damage threshold of any material, and ablation of beam dump materials potentially contaminates adjacent optical components. Full scale tests have demonstrated that a stainless steel beam dump will survive fluence levels and energies as high as 820 J/cm2 and 2.5 kJ, respectively. Small scale tests with tungsten, tantalum, and stainless steel have demonstrated erosion rates less than about 0.5 micrometers /shot, with stainless steel having the smallest rate. They also suggest that increased angles of incidence (>= 60 degree(s)) will greatly reduce the material ablated directly back along the beam path.
Nonabsorbing bulk defects can initiate laser damage in transparent materials. Defects such as voids, microcracks and localized stress concentrations can serve as positive or negative lenses for the incident laser light. The resulting interference pattern between refracted and diffracted light can result in intensity increases on the order of a factor of 2 some distance away from a typical negative microlens, and even larger for a positive microlens. Thus, the initial damage site can be physically removed from the defect which initiates damage. The parameter that determines the strength of such lensing is (Ka)2 (Delta) (epsilon) where the wavenumber K is 2(pi) /(lambda) , 2a is the linear size of the defect and (Delta) (epsilon) is the difference in dielectric coefficient between matrix and scatterer. Thus, even a small change in refractive index results in a significant effect for a defect large compared to a wavelength. Geometry is also important. 3D (eg. voids) as well as linear and planar (eg. cracks) microlenses can all have strong effects. The present paper evaluates the intensification due to spherical voids and high refractive index inclusions. We wish to particularly draw attention to the very large intensification that can occur at inclusions.
We are engaged in a comprehensive effort to understand and model the initiation and growth of laser damage initiated by surface contaminants. This includes, for example, the initial absorption by the contaminant, heating and plasma generation, pressure and thermal loading of the transparent substrate, and subsequent shockwave propagation, `splashing' of molten material and possible spallation, optical propagation and scattering, and treatment of material fracture. The integration use of large radiation hydrodynamics codes, optical propagation codes and material strength codes enables a comprehensive view of the damage process.
Experiments and calculations indicate that the threshold pressure in spatial filters for distortion of a transmitted pulse scales approximately as I-0.2 and (F#)2 over the intensity range from 1014 to 2 X 1015 W/cm2. We also demonstrated an interferometric diagnostic that will be used to measure the scaling relationships governing pinhole closure in spatial filters.
We are engaged in a comprehensive effort to understand and model the initiation and growth of laser damage initiated by surface contaminants. This includes, for example, the initial absorption by the contaminant, heating and plasma generation, pressure and thermal loading of the transparent substrate, and subsequent shockwave propagation, 'splashing' of molten material and possible spallation, optical propagation and scattering, and treatment of material fracture. The integration use of large radiation hydrodynamics codes, optical propagation codes and material strength codes enables a comprehensive view of the damage process. On the entrance optical surface, small particles can ablate nearly completely. In this case, only relatively weak shockwaves are launched into the substrate, but some particulate materials may be left on the surface to act as a diffraction mask and cause further absorption. DIffraction by wavelength scale scattering centers can lead to significant intensity modulation. Larger particles will not be completely vaporized. The shockwave generated in this case is larger and can lead to spallation of contaminant material which then may be deposited in the substrate. A gaseous atmosphere can lead to radiation trapping with concomitant increases in temperature and pressure near the surface. In addition, supersonic ionization waves in air may be generated which greatly extend the plasma plume spatially and temporally. Contaminants on the exit optical surface behave differently. They tend to heat and pop off completely in which case significant damage may not occur. Since plasma formed at the interface of the optic and absorbing particle is confined, much stronger pressures are generated in this case. Imaging of contaminants resulting in 'writing' a diffraction pattern on the exit surface due to contamination on the entrance surface has been observed experimentally and predicted theoretically. Such imprinted damage regions can seed damage from subsequent pulses.
Nonabsorbing defects can lead to laser damage. Defects such as voids, microcracks and localized stressed concentrations, even if they differ from the surrounding medium only be refractive index, can serve as positive or negative lenses of the incident laser light. The resulting interference pattern between refracted and diffracted light can result in intensity increases on the order of a factor of 2 some distance away from a typical negative microlens, and even larger for a positive microlens. Thus, the initial damage site can be physically removed from the defect which initiates damage. The parameter that determines the strength of such lensing is (Ka)2 (Delta) (epsilon) where the wave number K is 2(pi) /(lambda) , 2a is the linear size of the defect and (Delta) (epsilon) is the difference in dielectric coefficient between matrix and scatterer. Thus, even a small change in refractive index results in a significant effect for a defect large compared to a wavelength. Geometry is also important. 3D as well as linear and planar microlens can all have strong effects. The present paper evaluates the intensification due to spherical voids and high refractive index inclusions.
Advances in high peak power short-pulse laser systems are currently limited by laser-induced damage to optical components by the intense short pulses. We have investigated the damage thresholds and mechanisms of pure dielectrics, and gold and multilayer-dielectric mirrors and diffraction gratings, with pulses ranging from 1 ns down to 0.1 ps. Theoretical modeling of the damage process is in quantitative agreement with measurements for both metals and dielectrics. In the dielectrics, we find a change in pulse width scaling of the threshold fluence near 20 ps, below which the excited electrons generated by multiphoton and avalanche ionization have insufficient time to couple their energy to the lattice during the pulse. For the shortest pulses the damage process becomes dominated by multiphoton ionization, leading to a very strong dependence on the electric field strength (extremely localized ablation) and a relative insensitivity to sample defects.
Lasers are currently limited in their ability to remove hard tissue. Furthermore, many laser systems, such as the long pulse infrared lasers used to ablate bone or hard dental tissue, also generate unacceptable heat levels and cause collateral tissue damage. Ultrashort pulse lasers, however, are highly efficient, quiet and relatively free of damage. With recent development now allowing operation at high pulse repetition rates, ultrashort pulse systems can yield significant material volume removal which can potentially match or even exceed conventional technology while still maintaining the minimal collateral damage characteristics. In this paper, we report on preliminary studies of 350 fs pulse interactions with hard tissue and compare our results to the nanosecond ablation regime.
Tissue ablation with ultrashort laser pulses offers several unique advantages. The nonlinear energy deposition is insensitive to tissue type allowing this tool to be used for soft and hard tissue ablation. The localized energy deposition leads to precise ablation depth and minimal collateral damage. In this paper we will report on our efforts to study and demonstrate tissue ablation using an ultrashort pulse laser. The ablation efficiency, and extent of collateral damage for 0.3 ps and 1000 ps duration laser pulses will be compared. Temperature measurements of the rear surface of a tooth section will also be presented.
A computational model for the ablation of tooth enamel by ultra-short laser pulses is presented. The role of simulations using this model in designing and understanding laser drilling systems is discussed. Pulses of duration 300 fsec and intensity greater than 1012 W/cm2 are considered. Laser absorption proceeds via multi-photon initiated plasma mechanism. The hydrodynamic response is calculated with a finite difference method, using an equation of state constructed from thermodynamic functions including electronic, ion motion, and chemical binding terms. Results for the ablation efficiency are presented. An analytic model describing the ablation threshold and ablation depth is presented. Thermal coupling to the remaining tissue and long-time thermal conduction are calculated. Simulation results are compared to experimental measurements of the ablation efficiency. Desired improvements in the model are presented.
An overview of the physics of dental tissue processing with ultra-short pulse lasers is presented. Due to the small ablation rate per pulse, multiple pulses are necessary for macroscopic material removal. The paper discusses the cumulative effect of multiple pulse processing. Experimental data and calculation of thermal loading are presented, and the optimal laser system repetition rate is estimated. Modeling of the crater produced by multiple pulses is presented and possibilities to control the crater shape are discussed.
In spite of intensive research, lasers have not replaced conventional tools in many hard tissue applications. Low removal rates, loud operation noise, and mechanical and thermal damage are among the main obstacles to successful application of lasers. Ultrashort pulse lasers offer several advantages in their high per-pulse-efficiency, negligible thermal and mechanical damage and low noise operation. Practical applications of these devices, however, depends critically on sufficiently high volume removal which should match or even exceed the high speed drill. In our study, acoustical output of the USPL is compared to the low and high speed dental drill, Er:YAG, and Ho:YSGG lasers. Noise levels of the USPL are shown to be negligible in comparison with all other tested system. In addition, thermal characteristics of hard dental tissue ablation by ultrashort pulse laser of low and high pulse repetition rates are presented. Encouraging results showing temperatures increases smaller than 10 degree(s)C even at the highest pulse repetition rates (1 KHz) are presented. A simple model for heat diffusion is discussed.
A computational model for the ablation of tooth enamel by ultra-short laser pulses is presented. The role of simulations using this model in designing and understanding laser drilling systems is discussed. Pulses of duration 300 fsec and intensity greater than 1012 W/cm2 are considered. Laser absorption proceeds via multi-photon initiated plasma mechanism. The hydrodynamic response is calculated with a finite difference method, using an equation of state constructed from thermodynamic functions including electronic, ion motion, and chemical binding terms. Results for the ablation efficiency are presented. An analytic model describing the ablation threshold and ablation depth is presented. Thermal coupling to the remaining tissue and long-time thermal conduction are calculated. Simulation results are compared to experimental measurements of the ablation efficiency. Desired improvements in the model are presented.
Ultrashort laser pulse tissue ablation has demonstrated advantages of greatly reduced required energy and collateral damage. These advantages stem directly from the fact that laser energy is absorbed nonlinearly in a time too short for significant thermal and hydrodynamic response. The high peak power and short pulse duration both have implications for practical fiber delivery systems.
In spite of intensive research, lasers have not replaced conventional tools in many hard tissue applications. Ultrashort pulse lasers offer several advantages in their highly per-pulse-efficient operation, negligible thermal and mechanical damage and low noise operation. Possible development of optimal laser systems to replace the high-speed dental drill is discussed. Applications of ultrashort pulse systems for dental procedures are outlined. Selection criteria and critical parameters are considered, and are compared to the conventional air-turbine drill and to long and short pulsed systems.
Lasers are currently limited in their ability to remove hard tissue. Furthermore, many laser systems, such as the long pulse infrared lasers used to ablate bone or hard dental tissue, also generate unacceptable heat levels and cause collateral tissue damage. Ultrashort pulse lasers, however, are highly efficient, quiet, and relatively free of charge. With recent developments now allowing operation at high pulse repetition rates, ultrashort pulse systems can yield significant material volume removal which can potentially match or even exceed conventional technology while still maintaining the minimal collateral damage characteristics. In this paper, the interaction characteristics of two pulse regimes with enamel and dentin: 350 fs pulse ablation of hard dental tissues is compared to the interaction with one nanosecond pulses. Ablation rates were characterized and surface morphology, and structure were evaluated using a scanning electron microscope.
Chirped pulse amplification is increasingly used to produce intense ultrashort laser pulses. When high efficiency gratings are the dispersive element, as in the LLNL Petawatt laser, their susceptibility to laser induced damage constitutes a limitation on the peak intensities that can be reached. To obtain robust gratings, it is necessary to understand the causes of short-pulse damage, and to recognize the range of design options for high efficiency gratings. Metal gratings owe their high efficiency to their high conductivity. To avoid the inevitable light absorption that accompanies conductivity, we have developed designs for high efficiency reflection gratings that use only transparent dielectric materials. These combine the reflectivity of a multilayer dielectric stack with a diffraction grating. We report here our present understanding of short-pulse laser induced damage, as it applies to dielectric gratings.
Successful operation of large-scale high-power lasers, such as those in use and planned at LLNL and elsewhere, require optical elements that can withstand extremely high fluences without suffering damage. Of particular concern are gratings used for pulse compression. Laser induced damage to bulk dielectric material originates with coupling of the electric field of the radiation to bound electrons, proceeding through a succession of mechanisms that couple the electron kinetic energy to lattice energy and ultimately to macroscopic structural changes (e.g. fracture, melting, ablation, etc.). The constructive interference that is responsible for the diffractive behavior of a grating or the reflective properties of a multilayer dielectric stack can enhance the electric field above values that would occur in unstructured homogeneous material. The presence of nonuniform electric fields, resulting from diffractive coherence, has the potential to affect damage thresholds. We describe aspects of LLNL work directed towards understanding the influence of dielectric structures upon damage, with particular emphasis on electric fields within multilayer dielectric stacks.
Conditions which seed the self focussing of high-power broadband laser beams are determined by examining growth rates for plane-wave perturbations on a strong pump field as a function of frequency and angle. Measurements verifying predictions of growth based on the linearized stability analysis of Bespalov and Talanov extended to broadband fields are reported.
Nonlinear self-focusing in laser glass imposes limits on the energy fluence that can be safely transmitted without risking damage. For this reason, it is desirable to strictly limit the peak to average spatial variations of fluence by smoothing schemes such as smoothing by spectral dispersion (SSD). While spatial variations are problematic, the same is not necessarily true of temporal variations since normal group velocity dispersion tends to smooth out temporal peaks caused by spatial self-focusing. Earlier work indicated that increased bandwidth can delay the onset of self focusing. Indeed, a point can be reached at which self phase modulation nonlinearly increases the bandwidth, changing the speckle statistics along with suppressing self focusing. Unfortunately, this study found that a large initial bandwidth (compared with the gain bandwidth) was necessary to achieve this suppression under practical conditions. The full calculation for modulated beams was carried out for one transverse dimension. Two transverse dimensional calculations only treated symmetric beams. The present work reexamines the question of self focusing threshold increases due to high bandwidth by investigating another source of such increase in three dimensional beam breakup -- the bending instability. For simplicity, we consider the behavior of a single space-time speckle. Normal dispersion can lead to splitting of the pulse and delay of self focusing for short enough pulses as noted above. In addition to the self focusing instability, the laser beam is also subject to the so-called bending (sausage like) instability which can spatially disperse the field maxima over time. Because the bending instability breaks an initial axial symmetry, a full three dimensional numerical simulation is required to study it accurately. Such calculations are possible, but costly. We have used a modified 2D nonlinear Schrodinger equation with a high power nonlinearity since this mimics the 3D behavior of the competition between self focusing and bending. This allows a semi-quantitative estimate to be made of the possible significance of the bending instability for suppression of self focusing.
Our extensive measurements of damage thresholds for fused silica and several fluorides (LiF, CaF, MgF, and BaF) at 1053 and 526 nm for pulse durations, (tau) , ranging from 275 fs to 1 ns are reported elsewhere at this meeting. A theoretical model based on electron production via multiphoton ionization, Joule heating, and collisional (avalanche) ionization is in good agreement with experimental results.
Plasma mediated ablation of collagen gels and porcine cornea was studied at various laser pulse durations in the range from 350 fs to 1 ns at 1053 nm wavelength. A time resolved stress detection technique was employed to measure transient stress profiles and amplitudes. Optical microscopy was used to characterize ablation craters qualitatively, while a wide band acoustic transducer helped to quantify tissue mechanical response and the ablation threshold. The ablation threshold was measured as a function of laser pulse duration and linear absorption coefficient. For nanosecond pulses the ablation threshold was found to have a strong dependence on the linear absorption coefficient of the material. As the pulse length decreased into the subpicosecond regime the ablation threshold became insensitive to the linear absorption coefficient. High quality ablation craters with no thermal or mechanical damage to surrounding material were obtained with 350 fs laser pulses. The mechanism of optical breakdown at the tissue surface was theoretically investigated. In the nanosecond regime, optical breakdown proceeds as an electron collisional avalanche ionization initiated by thermal seed electrons. These seed electrons are created by heating of the tissue by linear absorption. In the ultrashort pulse range, optical breakdown is initiated by the multiphoton ionization of the irradiated medium (6 photons in case of tissue irradiated at 1053 nm wavelength), and becomes less sensitive to the linear absorption coefficient. The energy deposition profile is insensitive to both the laser pulse duration and the linear absorption coefficient.
We report laser-induced damage threshold measurements on pure and multilayer dielectrics and gold-coated optics at 1053 and 526 nm for pulse durations, (tau) , ranging from 140 fs to 1 ns. Damage thresholds of gold coatings are limited to 500 mJ/cm2 in the subpicosecond range from 1053-nm pulses. In dielectrics, qualitative differences in the morphology of damage and a departure from the diffusion-dominated (tau) 1/2 scaling indicate that damage results from plasma formation and ablation for (tau) <EQ 10 ps and from conventional melting and boiling for (tau) > 50 ps. A theoretical model based on electron production via multiphoton ionization, Joule heating, and collisional (avalanche) ionization is in quantitative agreement with both the pulsewidth and wavelength scaling of experimental results.
Much progress has been made recently in characterizing the emission from neon- like Yttrium exploding foil x-ray lasers. Concomitant with that effort, we have carried out detailed modeling to enhance our understanding of the experiments and improve their design. Our modeling includes target hydrodynamics, calculation of gain, and both ray and wave optics propagation. We will describe our modeling of Yt x-ray lasers, including first simulations using a two transverse dimensional gain calculation. Our calculations indicate that the time-integrated signal is very sensitive to the time history of the gain, because of the rapid sweep of the beam in angle measured with respect to the plane of the foil.
The spatial coherence of a neon-like selenium x-ray laser operating at 206 and 210 angstroms has been measured using a technique based on partially coherent x-ray diffraction. The time integrated spatial coherence of the selenium x-ray laser was determined to be equal to that of a quasi-monochromatic spatially incoherent disk source whose diameter is comparable to the line focus of the visible light laser pumping the x-ray laser. The spatial coherence was improved by narrowing the line focus width. Laboratory x-ray lasers have been available for six years as potential tools for research. Their basic characteristics such as output energy, pulselength, linewidth, and divergence have been measured. Knowledge of these characteristics has resulted in x-ray lasers being used in some preliminary applications experiments including photo-ionization physics, contact microscopy of cells, and holography. Future applications of x-ray lasers, such as nonlinear x-ray optics and holographic microscopy of biological microstructures, require a detailed knowledge of the spatial coherence. This paper presents the first measurement of the spatial coherence of an x-ray laser.
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