This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9329, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction (if any), and Conference Committee listing.

Brain imaging is becoming an important field in the frame of the neurophotonics in correlations with other medical ones in neuroscience studying functional and morphological aspects. In this presentation an overview on multi photon imaging of the brain will be presented, together with innovative aspects related to big area imaging and correlative microscopy approaches. Multiphoton imaging applications will be described together with methods to improve the penetration depth and obtain large area detection, or correlating functional aspects in vivo on single neuron with large area, even on whole brain, morphological aspects. Connecting super resolution features at the nanometer level with micro, meso and macroscopic architectures is in fact one of the challenging aspects to understand brain functioning.

To monitor conformational changes of individual membrane transporters in liposomes in real time, we attach two fluorophores to selected domains of a protein. Sequential distance changes between the dyes are recorded and analyzed by Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). Using freely diffusing membrane proteins reconstituted in liposomes, observation times are limited by Brownian motion through the confocal detection volume. A. E. Cohen and W. E. Moerner have invented and built microfluidic devices to actively counteract Brownian motion of single nanoparticles in electrokinetic traps (ABELtrap). Here we present a version of an ABELtrap with a laser focus pattern generated by electro-optical beam deflectors and controlled by a programmable FPGA. This ABELtrap could hold single fluorescent nanobeads for more than 100 seconds, increasing the observation times of a single particle more than 1000-fold. Conformational changes of single FRET-labeled membrane enzymes F_oF₁-ATP synthase can be detected in the ABELtrap.

Cell-penetrating phosphorescence based probes allow real-time, high-resolution imaging of O₂ concentration in respiring cells and 3D tissue models. We have developed a panel of such probes, small molecule and nanoparticle structures, which have different spectral characteristics, cell penetrating and tissue staining behavior. The probes are compatible with conventional live cell imaging platforms and can be used in different detection modalities, including ratiometric intensity and PLIM (Phosphorescence Lifetime IMaging) under one- or two-photon excitation. Analytical performance of these probes and utility of the O₂ imaging method have been demonstrated with different types of samples: 2D cell cultures, multi-cellular spheroids from cancer cell lines and primary neurons, excised slices from mouse brain, colon and bladder tissue, and live animals. They are particularly useful for hypoxia research, ex-vivo studies of tissue physiology, cell metabolism, cancer, inflammation, and multiplexing with many conventional fluorophors and markers of cellular function.

Methods of time resolved spectroscopy are applied in biomedicine during diagnosis of various malignant and nonmalignant diseases. Fluorescence lifetime measurement provides monitoring of intracellular metabolic enzymes like NADH and FAD, controlling the balance between oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis. The simultaneous monitoring of the different metabolic parameters is still a challenge.

Here we present a setup, which is based on two-photon microscopy and multi-dimensional time-correlated single-photoncounting (TCSPC). The presented method allows consecutive NADH and FAD imaging with high specificity and minimal side effects. In addition the setup is useful for simultaneous monitoring of NADH FLIM and intracellular oxygen partial pressure (pO₂). With the two-channel FLIM/PLIM system we could show that pO₂ is investigated simultaneously with different metabolic parameters in living cells.

Fabricated micro- and nano-structured surfaces were evaluated for use with living cells. Metabolic state was tested by means of endogenous flavin fluorescence of living peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) positioned on a coverslip, non-covered, or covered with micro- or nano-structured surfaces (OrmoComp polymer structures produced by 2-photon photopolymerisation, or Zinc Oxide (ZnO) layer fabricated by pulsed laser deposition). Confocal microscopy and Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM) were employed to gather flavin fluorescence lifetime images of living PBMC on structured surfaces. Gathered data are the first step towards monitoring of the live cell interaction with different micro/nano-structured surfaces and thus evaluate their potential applicability in the biomedical field.

Multiphoton microscopy is a non-invasive imaging technique with ideal characteristics for biological applications. In this study, we propose to characterize three major structures of the porcine eye, the cornea, crystalline lens, and retina using two-photon excitation fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (2PE-FLIM).

Samples were imaged using a laser-scanning microscope, consisting of a broadband sub-15 femtosecond (fs) near-infrared laser. Signal detection was performed using a 16-channel photomultiplier tube (PMT) detector (PML-16PMT). Therefore, spectral analysis of the fluorescence lifetime data was possible. To ensure a correct spectral analysis of the autofluorescence lifetime data, the spectra of the individual endogenous fluorophores were acquired with the 16-channel PMT and with a spectrometer. All experiments were performed within 12h of the porcine eye enucleation.

We were able to image the cornea, crystalline lens, and retina at multiple depths. Discrimination of each structure based on their autofluorescence intensity and lifetimes was possible. Furthermore, discrimination between different layers of the same structure was also possible. To the best of our knowledge, this was the first time that 2PE-FLIM was used for porcine lens imaging and layer discrimination. With this study we further demonstrated the feasibility of 2PE-FLIM to image and differentiate three of the main components of the eye and its potential as an ophthalmologic technique.

Confocal FRET microscopy is a widely used technique for studying protein-protein interactions in live or fixed cells. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and S-nitrosoglutathione reductase (GSNOR) are enzymes involved in regulating the bioavailability of S-nitrosothiols (SNOs) in the pulmonary endothelium and have roles in the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Labeling of endogenous proteins to better understand a disease process can be challenging. We have used immunofluorescence to detect endogenous eNOS and GSNOR in primary pulmonary endothelial cells to co-localize these proteins as well as to study their interaction by FRET. The challenge has been in selecting the right immunofluorescence labeling condition, right antibody, the right blocking reagent, the right FRET pair and eliminating cross-reactivity of secondary antibodies. We have used Alexa488 and Alexa568 as a FRET pair. After a series of optimizations, the data from Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) demonstrate co-localization of eNOS and GSNOR in the perinuclear region of the pulmonary endothelial cell primarily within the cis-Golgi with lower levels of co-localization seen within the trans-Golgi. FRET studies demonstrate, for the first time, interaction between eNOS and GSNOR in both murine and bovine pulmonary endothelial cells. Further characterization of eNOSGSNOR interaction and the subcellular location of this interaction will provide mechanistic insight into the importance of S-nitrosothiol signaling in pulmonary biology, physiology and pathology.

Lifetime and spectral imaging are complementary techniques that offer a non-invasive solution for monitoring metabolic processes, identifying biochemical compounds, and characterizing their interactions in biological tissues, among other tasks. Newly developed instruments that perform time-resolved spectral imaging can provide even more information and reach higher sensitivity than either modality alone. Here we report a multispectral lifetime imaging system based on a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), capable of operating at high photon count rates (12 MHz) per spectral detection channel, and with time resolution of 200 ps. We performed error analyses to investigate the effect of gate width and spectral-channel width on the accuracy of estimated lifetimes and spectral widths. Temporal and spectral phasors were used for analysis of recorded data, and we demonstrated blind un-mixing of the fluorescent components using information from both modalities. Fractional intensities, spectra, and decay curves of components were extracted without need for prior information. We further tested this approach with fluorescently doubly-labeled DNA, and demonstrated its suitability for accurately estimating FRET efficiency in the presence of either non-interacting or interacting donor molecules.

With the rapid development of life sciences, there is an increasing demand for intravital fluorescence imaging of small animals. However, large dimensions and limited working distances of objective lenses in traditional fluorescence microscopes have limited the imaging applications mostly to superficial tissues. To overcome this disadvantage, researchers have developed the graded-index (GRIN) probes with small diameters for imaging internal organs of small animals in a minimally invasive fashion. Here, we present the development of a fluorescence endoscopic imaging system based on a GRIN lens using two-photon excitation. Experimental results showed that this system could perform dynamic fluorescence microendoscopic imaging and monitor the blood flow in anesthetized living mice using two-photon excitation.

Hemoglobin, one of the most important proteins in blood, is responsible for oxygen transportation in almost all vertebrates. Recently, we discovered two-photon excited hemoglobin fluorescence and achieved label-free microvascular imaging based on the hemoglobin fluorescence. However, the mechanism of its fluorescence emission still remains unknown. In this work, we studied the two-photon excited fluorescence properties of the hemoglobin subunits, heme/hemin (iron (II)/(III) protoporphyrin IX) and globin. We first studied the properties of heme and the similar spectral and temporal characteristics of heme and hemoglobin fluorescence provide strong evidence that heme is the fluorophore in hemoglobin. Then we studied the fluorescence properties of hemin, globin and methemoglobin, and found that the hemin may have the main effect on the methemoglobin fluorescence and that globin has tryptophan fluorescence like other proteins. Finally, since heme is a centrosymmetric molecule, that the Soret band fluorescence of heme and hemoglobin was not observed in the single photon process in the previous study may be due to the parity selection rule. The discovery of heme two-photon excited fluorescence may open a new window for heme biology research, since heme as a cofactor of hemoprotein has many functions, including chemical catalysis, electron transfer and diatomic gases transportation.

Pump-probe microscopy is a multiphoton technique that generates molecular contrast from absorptive pigments, such as melanin. It holds the potential to be used as a non-invasive screening tool to discern whether a given early-stage melanoma has acquired the capacity for metastasis. Here, we examined lesions in a Braf(V600E)-driven model of melanoma to assess whether loss of the tumor suppressor gene Pten in a is accompanied by a shift in pigment expression, as measured in vivo by pump-probe microscopy. The data were analyzed to determine differences in the excited-state lifetime of melanins expressed in Pten-competent and Pten-loss pigmented lesions. Loss of the tumor suppressor Pten was found to be accompanied by a statistically significant decrease in pixel-average excited state lifetime (p = 1.3e-4).

Weightlessness may impair the astronaut’s health conditions. Skin impairments belong to the most frequent health problems during space missions. Within the Skin B project, skin physiological changes during long duration space flights are currently investigated on three European astronauts that work for nearly half a year at the ISS.

Measurements on the hydration, the transepidermal water loss, the surface structure, elasticity and the tissue density by ultrasound are conducted. Furthermore, high-resolution in vivo histology is performed by multiphoton tomography with 300 nm spatial and 200 ps temporal resolution. The mobile certified medical tomograph with a flexible 360° scan head attached to a mechano-optical arm is employed to measure two-photon autofluorescence and SHG in the volar forearm of the astronauts. Modification of the tissue architecture and of the fluorescent biomolecules NAD(P)H, keratin, melanin and elastin are detected as well as of SHG-active collagen. Thinning of the vital epidermis, a decrease of the autofluoresence intensity, an increase in the long fluorescence lifetime, and a reduced skin ageing index SAAID based on an increased collagen level in the upper dermis have been found. Current studies focus on recovery effects.

The tissue acetowhitening effect in acetic acid instillation procedure is a simple and economic method for neoplasia detection and has been clinically utilized since 1925. It is suspected that the optical property (e.g. scattering) change in acetowhitening is due to coagulation of intracellular proteins, but no experimental proof has been reported yet. In this work, we use third-harmonic generation (THG) and two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF) to investigate the acetowhitening phenomenon induced by acidic acid in live mammalian cells without labeling. We studied the acetowhitening effect with different acetic acid concentrations and the co-localized TPEF and THG imaging on tryptophan and NADH at subcellular-level reveals that the acetowhitening phenomenon is highly related with proteins involved in metabolic pathways in the nucleus and cytoplasm in live cells.

The use of sub-15 femtosecond laser pulses in stem cell research is explored with particular emphasis on the optical reprogramming of somatic cells.

The reprogramming of somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells can be evoked through the ectopic expression of defined transcription factors. Conventional approaches utilize retro/lenti-viruses to deliver genes/transcription factors as well as to facilitate the integration of transcription factors into that of the host genome. However, the use of viruses may result in insertional mutations caused by the random integration of genes and as a result, this may limit the use within clinical applications due to the risk of the formation of cancer. In this study, a new approach is demonstrated in realizing non-viral reprogramming through the use of ultrashort laser pulses, to introduce transcription factors into the cell so as to generate iPS cells.

In recent years two-photon microscopy with fixed-wavelength has raised increasing interest in life-sciences: Two-photon (2P) absorption spectra of common dyes are broader than single-photon ones. Therefore, excitation of several dyes simultaneously with a single IR laser wavelength is feasible and could be seen as an advantage in 2P microscopy. We used pulsed fixed-wavelength infrared lasers with center wavelength at 1040 nm, for two-photon microscopy in a variety of biologically relevant samples, among these a mouse brain sample, a mouse artery (within the animal, acute preparation), and a preparation of mouse bladder. The 1040 nm laser proved to be efficient not only in exciting fluorescence from yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) and red fluorescent dyes, but also for second harmonic generation (SHG) signals from muscle tissue and collagen. With this work we demonstrate that economical, small-footprint fixedwavelength lasers can present an interesting alternative to tunable lasers that are commonly used in multiphoton microscopy.

Two-photon laser scanning microscopy has become a standard to map thick and live tissues. However, its application for fast and multicolor imaging remains challenging. To address this issue, we report on the implementation of mixed wavelength excitation in a two-photon light-sheet microscope. We illustrate the potential of the technique by recording sustained multicolor two-photon movies of the beating heart in zebrafish embryos with negligible photobleaching at 28 million pixels/second. In particular, 3D reconstructions of the heart periodic motion are obtained with sufficient spatiotemporal resolution to track the fast movements of individual cells during a cardiac cycle.

In this work we present non-resonant four-wave mixing microscopy as an additional contrast mechanism in nonlinear microscopy. The setup for this technique was based on a commercially available multiphoton microscope setup equipped with a titanium:sapphire-laser and an optical parametric oscillator as light sources. Fundamental system characteristics with respect to the spatio-temporal pulse overlap and the influence of aberrations on the process are presented. Experiments regarding the directionality of the four-wave mixing signal performed on fresh porcine meat showed an average ratio of the backward to forward signal mean intensity of 0.16 ± 0.01. Nevertheless, structural information is comparable for both detection modalities. This highlights the potential of four-wave mixing microscopy for in vivo applications. Furthermore, results on porcine meat show the additional contrast generated by four-wave mixing. In summary, the results show a great potential of non-resonant four-wave mixing microscopy as label-free imaging modality in the biomedical sciences.

Atherosclerosis is among the most widespread cardiovascular diseases and one of the leading cause of death in the Western World. Characterization of arterial tissue in atherosclerotic condition is extremely interesting from the diagnostic point of view, especially for what is concerning collagen content and organization because collagen plays a crucial role in plaque vulnerability. Routinely used diagnostic methods, such as histopathological examination, are limited to morphological analysis of the examined tissues, whereas an exhaustive characterization requires immune-histochemical examination and a morpho-functional approach. Non-linear microscopy techniques offer the potential for providing morpho-functional information on the examined tissues in a label-free way. In this study, we employed combined SHG and FLIM microscopy for characterizing collagen organization in both normal arterial wall and within atherosclerotic plaques. Image pattern analysis of SHG images allowed characterizing collagen organization in different tissue regions. In addition, the analysis of collagen fluorescence decay contributed to the characterization of the samples on the basis of collagen fluorescence lifetime. Different values of collagen fiber mean size, collagen distribution, collagen anisotropy and collagen fluorescence lifetime were found in normal arterial wall and within plaque depositions, prospectively allowing for automated classification of atherosclerotic lesions and plaque vulnerability. The presented method represents a promising diagnostic tool for evaluating atherosclerotic tissue and has the potential to find a stable place in clinical setting as well as to be applied in vivo in the near future.

The second harmonic generation from collagen is highly sensitive to what extent collagen molecules are ordered into fibrils as the SHG signal is approximately proportional to the square of the fibril thickness. This can be problematic when interpreting SHG images as thick fibers are much brighter than thinner fibers such that quantification of the amount of collagen present is difficult. On the other hand SHG is therefore also a very sensitive probe to determine whether collagen have assembled into fibrils or are still dissolved as individual collagen molecules. This information is not available from standard histology or immunohistochemical techniques. The degree for fibrillation is an essential component for proper tissue function. We will present the usefulness of SHG imaging in tissue engineering of cartilage as well as cartilage related pathologies. When engineering cartilage it is essential to have the appropriate culturing conditions which cause the collagen molecules to assemble into fibrils. By employing SHG imaging we have studied how cell seeding densities affect the fibrillation of collagen molecules. Furthermore we have used SHG to study pathologies in developing cartilage in a porcine model. In both cases SHG reveals information which is not visible in conventional histology or immunohistochemistry

The potential of microalgae as a source of renewable energy has received considerable interest because they can produce lipids (fatty acids and isoprenoids) that can be readily converted into biofuels. However, significant research in this area is required to increase yields to make this a viable renewable source of energy. An analytical tool that could provide quantitative in situ spectroscopic analysis of lipids synthesis in individual microalgae would significantly enhance our capability to understand the synthesis process at the cellular level and lead to the development of strategies for increasing yield. Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy has great potential in this area however, the pump-probe signal from two-color two-photon absorption of pigments (chlorophyll and carotenoids) overwhelm the SRS signal and prevent its application. Clearly, the development of a background suppression technique is of significant value for this important research area.

To overcome the limitation of SRS in pigmented specimens, we establish a frequency-modulated stimulated Raman scattering (FM-SRS) microscopy that eliminates the non-Raman background by rapidly toggling on-and-off the targeted Raman resonance. Moreover, we perform the background-free imaging and analysis of intracellular lipid droplets and extracellular hydrocarbons in a green microalga with FM-SRS microscopy. We believe that FM-SRS microscopy demonstrates the potential for many applications in pigmented cells and provides the opportunity for improved selective visualization of the chemical composition of algae and plants

Label-free multiphoton tomography based on two-photon autofluorescence, fluorescence lifetime, and second harmonic generation imaging can be supplemented by coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering. We present a compact, mobile and flexible clinical tomograph equipped with a novel detector design with multiple miniaturized detectors for individual acquisition of all four contrast mechanisms. Imaging of endogenous fluorophores, SHG-active collagen as well as nonfluorescent lipids in human skin in vivo is possible with this clinical tomograph paving the way towards in vivo histology.

We report the development of a unique simultaneous quadruple-modal nonlinear optical microscopy (i.e., stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), second-harmonic generation (SHG), two-photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF), and third-harmonic generation (THG)) platform for characterization of the gastric diseases (i.e., gastritis, intestinal metaplasia (IM), intestinal type adenocarcinoma). SRS highlights the goblet cells found in IM. SHG images the distribution of collagen in lamina propria. Collagen is found to aggregate for intestinal type adenocarcinoma. TPEF reveals the cell morphology and can reflect the damage inside glands caused by the diseases. THG visualizes the nuclei with high spatial resolution, which facilitates the identification of neutrophils that are usually used as a feature of inflammation. This work shows that the co-registration of quadruple-modal images can be an effective means for diagnosis and characterization of gastric diseases at the cellular and molecular levels.

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) spectral imaging combined with multivariate analysis such as independent component analysis (ICA) allows rapid imaging of several constituents with spectral information. However, ICA takes several tens of seconds and it hinders real-time analysis. Furthermore, spectra given by ICA are not always identical to the original spectral images. In this paper, I show that ICA can be very quick by compressing the images. Furthermore, I propose a technique for extracting spectral information based on the post sampling at the locations where the ICA intensity is high. I demonstrate the proposed technique for the imaging of polymer beads and tissue samples.

A compact, robust, and inexpensive fiber-based source for coherent Raman imaging would benefit both re-searchers and the clinical application of these imaging techniques. However, the relative intensity noise of fiber sources has precluded their use for stimulated Raman scattering microscopy without the use of electronic noise cancellation. A recently demonstrated fiber optical parametric oscillator was used to achieve high-quality images using coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy, and demonstrated that the self-consistent nature of the oscillator aided low-noise frequency conversion. Thus, reducing the intensity noise on the fiber laser used to pump this device will be a critical step in creating a fiber-based source for stimulated Raman scattering microscopy. We will report the design and construction of high-energy dissipative soliton fiber lasers as a potential source of quiet picosecond pulses at 1 μm, along with application to pumping the optical parametric oscillator.

Recent advances in pharmaceutical nanotechnology have enabled the development of nano-particulate medicines with enhanced drug performance. Although the fate of these nano-particles can be macroscopically tracked in the body (e.g. using radio-labeling techniques), there is little information about the sub-cellular scale mechanistic processes underlying the particle-tissue interactions, or how these interactions may correlate with pharmaceutical efficacy. To rationally engineer these nano-particles and thus optimize their performance, these mechanistic interactions must be fully understood. Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy provides a label-free means for visualizing biological samples, but can suffer from a strong non-resonant background in samples that are prepared using aldehyde-based fixatives. We demonstrate how formalin fixative affects the detection of polymeric nanoparticles within kidneys following oral administration using CARS microscopy, compared with samples that were snap-frozen. These findings have implications for clinical applications of CARS for probing nanoparticle distribution in tissue biopsies.

High resolution imaging in three dimension is important for biological research. RESOLFT (Reversible Saturable Optical Fluorescence Transitions) microscopy is one technique can achieve lateral super-resolution imaging. Twophoton microscopy naturally generate high resolution in the longitudinal direction with less background compared to single photon excitation. In this paper, we combine these two methods to realize three-dimensional high-resolution imaging. Spatial light modulator (SLM) is used as a flexible phase mask of the microscopy. Multiple super-resolution focuses as an array or in arbitrary positions could be generated by phase retrieval. This microscopy by SLM control could applied to parallel two-photon RESOLFT imaging or multiple spots tracking in high-resolution.

Temporal focusing (TF) multiphoton systems constitute a powerful solution for cellular resolution optogenetic stimulation and recording in three-dimensional, scattering tissue. Here, we address two fundamental aspects in the design of such systems: first, we examine the design of TF systems with specific optical sectioning by comparatively analyzing previously published results. Next, we develop a solution for obtaining TF in a flexible three-dimensional pattern of cellmatched focal spots. Our solution employs spatio-temporal focusing (SSTF) in a unique optical system design that can be integrated before essentially any multiphoton imaging or stimulation system.

Despite recent findings on the possible role of age-related cerebral microvasculature changes in cognition decline, previous studies of capillary blood flow in aging (using animal models) are scarce and limited to anesthetized conditions. Since anesthesia can have different effects in young and old animals, it may introduce a confounding effect in aging studies. The present study aimed to eliminate the potential confound introduced by anesthesia by measuring capillary blood flow parameters in both awake conditions and under isoflurane anesthesia. We used 2-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy to measure capillary diameter, red blood cell velocity and flux, hematocrit and capillary volumetric flow in individual capillaries in the barrel cortex of 6- and 24-month old C57Bl/6 mice. It was observed that microvascular properties are significantly affected by anesthesia leading to different trends in capillary blood flow parameters with aging when measured under awake or anesthetized conditions. The findings in this study suggest taking extra care in interpreting aging studies from anesthetized animals.

Here, we examine ovarian cancer extracellular matrix (ECM) modification by measuring the wavelength dependence of optical scattering measurements and quantitative second-harmonic generation (SHG) imaging metrics in the range of 800-1100 nm in order to determine fibrillary changes in ex vivo normal ovary, type I, and type II ovarian cancer. Mass fractals of the collagen fiber structure is analyzed based on a power law correlation function using spectral dependence measurements of the reduced scattering coefficient μ_s′ where the mass fractal dimension is related to the power. Values of μ_s′ are measured using independent methods of determining the values of μ_s and g by on-axis attenuation measurements using the Beer-Lambert Law and by fitting the angular distribution of scattering to the Henyey-Greenstein phase function, respectively. Quantitativespectral SHG imaging on the same tissues determines F_SHG/B_SHG creation ratios related to size and harmonophore distributions. Both techniques probe fibril packing order, but the optical scattering probes structures of sizes from about 50-2000 nm where SHG imaging – although only able to resolve individual fibers – builds contrast from the assembly of fibrils. Our findings suggest that type I ovarian tumor structure has the most ordered collagen fibers followed by normal ovary then type II tumors showing the least order.

Standard methods to characterize patient tissue rely on histology. This technique provides only anatomical information, so complementary imaging methods could provide beneficial phenotypic information. Cancer cells exhibit altered metabolism, and metabolic imaging could be applied to better understand cancer tissue. This study applies redox ratio, fluorescence lifetime, and second harmonic generation (SHG) imaging to ex vivo tissue from head and neck cancer patients. This high-resolution imaging technique has unique advantages of utilizing intrinsic tissue contrast, which eliminates the need for sample processing or staining, and multiphoton microscopy, which provides depth sectioning in intact tissue. This study demonstrates feasibility of these measurements in patient tissue from multiple anatomical sites and carcinoma types of head and neck cancer.

We have designed and built a two-photon microscope which allows calcium imaging in awake, behaving animals across field-of-views (FOV) of up to 1.7 × 1.7 mm. A special scan system enables independent x,y, and z-positioning of two smaller sub-areas within this FOV for simultaneous functional recordings. This microscope enables us to optically record neuronal activity with cellular resolution across much larger spatial scales than previously possible and should help in deciphering the behavior-dependent flow of information within the neocortex. The microscope hard- and software are modular and can be extended to other imaging and photostimulation modalities.

We demonstrate, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, a significant resolution improvement in multiphoton microscopy (MPM) using saturated excitation of fluorescence.

At high illumination power, saturation of the two-photon excitation probability of the fluorophore occurs and induces a strong nonlinear response. By temporally modulating the excitation laser-intensity and demodulating high-order harmonics from the saturated fluorescence signal, images with higher spatial resolution than with standard MPM can be obtained. We show, as expected from a two-photon excitation process, that resolution improvement arises when demodulating at least at the third harmonic and that linear combinations of harmonics provide further improvement of the resolution. Images of 200 nm fluorescent microspheres confirm the improvement of the spatial resolution.

Nonlinear microscopies, including two-photon excited autofluorescence (TPEF) and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS), were used to study individual human sweat pore morphology and topically applied antiperspirant salt penetration inside sweat pore, in vivo on human palms. Sweat pore inner morphology in vivo was imaged up to the depth of 100 μm by TPEF microscopy. The 3D penetration and distribution of “in situ calcium carbonate” (isCC), an antiperspirant salt model, was investigated using CARS microscopy.

Melanin is regarded as the most enigmatic pigments/biopolymers found in most organisms. We have shown previously that melanin goes through a step-wise multi-photon absorption process after the fluorescence has been activated with high laser intensity. No melanin step-wise multi-photon activation fluorescence (SMPAF) can be obtained without the activation process. The step-wise multi-photon activation fluorescence has been observed to require less laser power than what would be expected from a non–linear optical process. In this paper, we examined the power dependence of the activation process of melanin SMPAF at 830nm and 920nm wavelengths. We have conducted research using varying the laser power to activate the melanin in a point-scanning mode for multi-photon microscopy. We recorded the fluorescence signals and position. A sequence of experiments indicates the relationship of activation to power, energy and time so that we can optimize the power level. Also we explored regional analysis of melanin to study the spatial relationship in SMPAF and define three types of regions which exhibit differences in the activation process.

Nonlinear optical effects have been widely explored for microscopy due to the possibility of three-dimension (3D) image acquisition. Harmonic generation and nonlinear absorption, for instance, were used for this purpose. Each nonlinear effect has its own characteristic, complexity, type of contrast, advantage and disadvantage, etc. Recently, we developed a new simple and sensitive method for measuring nonlinear ellipse rotation (NER) using a dual-phase lock-in amplifier, which could be successfully applied for measuring local nonlinearity distribution on a sample and, consequently, the image acquisition. The NER is a particular refractive nonlinear effect which appears when strong elliptical polarized laser beam propagates along one nonlinear material. It is type of refractive Kerr nonlinearity similar to self-focalization responsible for the signal in the Z-scan technique. The self-focalization is one of the most important refractive effects, but it cannot be used for image acquisition. On the other hand, NER does. Furthermore, such refractive nonlinearities signal can be very strong and serves as a new contrast for nonlinear microscopy.

Type I collagen is a major structural protein in mammals that shows highly structured macromolecular organizations specific to each tissue. This biopolymer is synthesized as triple helices, which self-assemble into fibrils (Ø =10-300 nm) and further form various 3D organization. In recent years, Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) microscopy has emerged as a powerful technique to probe in situ the fibrillar collagenous network within tissues. However, this optical technique cannot resolve most of the fibrils and is a coherent process, which has impeded quantitative measurements of the fibril diameter so far.

In this study, we correlated SHG microscopy with Transmission Electron Microscopy to determine the sensitivity of SHG microscopy and to calibrate SHG signals as a function of the fibril diameter in reconstructed collagen gels. To that end, we synthetized isolated fibrils with various diameters and successfully imaged the very same fibrils with both techniques, down to 30 nm diameter. We observed that SHG signals scaled as the fourth power of the fibril diameter, as expected from analytical and numerical calculations. This calibration was then applied to diabetic rat cornea in which we successfully recovered the diameter of hyperglycemia-induced fibrils in the Descemet’s membrane without having to resolve them. Finally we derived the first hyperpolarizability from a single collagen triple helix which validates the bottom-up approach used to calculate the non-linear response at the fibrillar scale and denotes a parallel alignment of triple helices within the fibrils. These results represent a major step towards quantitative SHG imaging of nm-sized collagen fibrils.

Simultaneous spatial and temporal focusing (SSTF) multiphoton microscopy offers us widefield imaging with sectioning ability. As extending the idea to 2D SSTF, people can utilize a 2D spectral disperser. In this study, we use a 2D spectral disperser via a virtually-imaged phased-array (VIPA) and a diffraction grating to fulfill the back aperture of objective lens with a spectrum matrix. This offers us an axial resolution enhanced by a factor of ~1.7 compared with conventional SSTF microscopy. Furthermore, the small free spectral range (FSR) of VIPA will reduce the temporal self-imaging effect around out-of-focus region and thus will reduce the out-of-focus multiphoton excited fluorescence (MPEF) signal of 2D SSTF microscopy. We experimentally show that inside a sample with dense MPEF, the contrast of the sectioning image is increased in our 2D SSTF microscope compared with SSTF microscope. In our microscope, we use a 1 kHz chirped amplification laser, a piezo stage and a sCMOS camera integrated with 2D SSTF to realize high speed volume imaging at a speed of 50 volumes per second as well as improved sectioning ability. Volume imaging of Brownian motions of fluorescent beads as small as 1μm has been demonstrated. Not only the lateral motion but also the axial motion could be traced.

Multiple fluorescent probes (multi-dyes) and single or multi-laser configurations can significantly extend the applications and accuracy of microscopy. Multiple fluorescent probes enable the user to identify more than one target, but difficulties can arise due to overlapping spectral emissions of the different probes. In particular, spectral overlapping of fluorescent and/or phosphorescent emission signals can lead to incorrect analysis. We present a method to numerically calculate overlapping spectra. An accurate modeling tool would be valuable to predict the best laser-probes combinations for selection and screening stages.

We use a numerical method that simulates both time and space so that we can calculate on a near-instantaneous basis the absorption of laser light and electron populations. We can then calculate the intensity of the emitted signal and determine the overlap of the spectra.

Polarization-resolved second harmonic generation microscopy was used to investigate the collagenous structures of cornea samples in vitro in forward and backward direction. Although structural features appear different in both directions, following an approach by Latour et al. the collagen domain orientation is determined in forward as well as in backward direction, the latter being the only accessible direction for in vivo imaging. The experimental setup enables fast and completely motionless rotation of the polarization direction of 100 fs pulses by a polarization rotation based on a liquid crystal retarder.

Second-harmonic-generation (SHG) microscopy is a new tool for observing the collagen fiber in tissue in vivo. Conventional SHG microscopy equipped with 100-fs pulse laser is insufficient to visualize low-order-structured, immature collagen with high contrast (for example, collagen fiber produced by cultured cell) because of low nonlinear susceptibility χ⁽²⁾. To enhance the image contrast while avoiding the sample damage, one should increase a peak power of the laser light while maintaining the same average power as the 100-fs laser. In this paper, we constructed sensitive SHG microscopy equipped with a 10-fs Ti:Sapphire laser and succeeded to visualize collagen fibers produced by the cultured osteoblasts in vivo.

Today’s commercially available microscopes offer a wide array of options to accommodate common imaging experiments. Occasionally, an experimental goal will require an unusual light source, filter, or even irregular sample that is not compatible with existing equipment. In these situations the ability to modify an existing microscopy platform with custom accessories can greatly extend its utility and allow for experiments not possible with stock equipment. Light source conditioning/manipulation such as polarization, beam diameter or even custom source filtering can easily be added with bulk components. Custom and after-market detectors can be added to external ports using optical construction hardware and adapters. This paper will present various examples of modifications carried out on commercial microscopes to address both atypical imaging modalities and research needs. Violet and near-ultraviolet source adaptation, custom detection filtering, and laser beam conditioning and control modifications will be demonstrated. The availability of basic ‘building block’ parts will be discussed with respect to user safety, construction strategies, and ease of use.

Bessel beams have been used in many applications due to their unique optical properties of maintaining their intensity profiles unchanged during propagation. In imaging applications, Bessel beams have been successfully used to provide extended focuses for volumetric imaging and uniformed illumination plane in light-sheet microscopy. Coupled with two-photon excitation, Bessel beams have been successfully used in realizing fluorescence projected volumetric imaging. We demonstrated previously a stereoscopic solution–two-photon fluorescence stereomicroscopy (TPFSM)–for recovering the depth information in volumetric imaging with Bessel beams. In TPFSM, tilted Bessel beams were used to generate stereoscopic images on a laser scanning two-photon fluorescence microscope; upon post image processing we could successfully provide 3D perception of acquired volume images by wearing anaglyph 3D glasses. However, tilted Bessel beams were generated by shifting either an axicon or an objective laterally; the slow imaging speed and severe aberrations made it hard to use in real-time volume imaging. In this article, we report recent improvements of TPFSM with newly designed scanner and imaging software, which allows 3D stereoscopic imaging without moving any of the optical components on the setup. This improvement has dramatically improved focusing qualities and imaging speed so that the TPFSM can be performed potentially in real-time to provide 3D visualization in scattering media without post image processing.

The rapid prototyping capability offered by 3D printing is considered advantageous for commercial applications. However, the ability to quickly produce precision custom devices is highly beneficial in the research laboratory setting as well. Biological laboratories require the manipulation and analysis of delicate living samples, thus the ability to create custom holders, support equipment, and adapters allow the extension of existing laboratory machines. Applications include camera adapters and stage sample holders for microscopes, surgical guides for tissue preparation, and small precision tools customized to unique specifications. Where high precision is needed, especially the reproduction of fine features, a printer with a high resolution is needed. However, the introduction of cheaper, lower resolution commercial printers have been shown to be more than adequate for less demanding projects. For direct manipulation of delicate samples, biocompatible raw materials are often required, complicating the printing process. This paper will examine some examples of 3D-printed objects for laboratory use, and provide an overview of the requirements for 3D printing for this application. Materials, printing resolution, production, and ease of use will all be reviewed with an eye to producing better printers and techniques for laboratory applications. Specific case studies will highlight applications for 3D-printed devices in live animal imaging for both microscopy and Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

In vivo high-resolution multiphoton/CARS tomography provides optical biopsies with 300 nm lateral resolution with chemical fingerprints. Thousands of volunteers and patients have been investigated for early cancer diagnosis, evaluation of anti-ageing cosmetic products, and changes of cellular metabolism by UV exposure and decreased oxygen supply. The skin as the outermost and largest organ is also the major target of CB agents. Current UV-based sensors are useful for bio-aerosol sensing but not for evaluating exposed in vivo skin. Here we evaluate the use of 4D multiphoton/CARS tomographs based on near infrared femtosecond laser radiation, time-correlated single photon counting (FLIM) and white light generation by photonic crystal fibers to detect bio- and chemohazards in human in vivo skin using twophoton fluorescence, SHG, and Raman signals.

In this study, we propose a non-invasive method to distinguish pancreatic islet cells from exocrine cell clusters using multiphoton (MP) imaging. We demonstrate the principle of distinguishing them based on autofluorescence. The results show that MP imaging has a potential to distinguish pancreatic islets from exocrine cells. This ability to distinguish the two cell types could have many applications, such as the examination of fresh pancreatic biopsies when staining is not possible or desirable.

In cardiac imaging, the spacing between sub-cellular sarcomere structures is of great importance to physiologists in understanding muscle design and performance. Making accurate measurements of the sarcomere length (SL) presents a significant imaging challenge owing to the size of the SL (~2μm) and its naturally low variability (<6%), requiring a high level of precision to determine subtle changes between heart disease models. Moreover, measurements of SL from traditional two-photon imaging have so far been ambiguous to within a factor of cos(α), where α is the inclination of the tissue with respect to the focal plane.

By remotely focussing a customised two-photon microscope, it is possible to image heart cells at two oblique angles within 200ms. The oblique images uniquely resolve the tissue inclination ambiguity and reduce the variance of SL measures by as much as 23%. This improved precision is crucial in discerning between pathological models of chronic hypertension. As well as improving measurement precision, the distribution of α across the field of view provides additional structural information which can be related to disease morphology. To validate this new imaging protocol, the value ofα calculated from the oblique planes provided the input to a rigid model cell which was used to predict the appearance of the cell in the conventional focal plane. The comparison of the model to the image data provided a confidence metric for our measurements. Finally, by considering the optical transfer function, the range of cell orientations for which the method is valid could be calculated.

We report the use of Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) in a polarization-resolved Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (FLIM) setup for the investigation of cell membrane structural and dynamic properties. This technique allows us to study the orientation and mobility of fluorescent membrane dyes, namely di-4-ANEPPDHQ and DiO, in model bilayers of different lipid compositions. Dipole alignment and extent of rotational motion can be linked to membrane order and fluidity. Comparison of the time-resolved anisotropy decays of the two fluorescent dyes suggests that rotational motion of membrane constituents is restricted in liquid-ordered phases, and appears to be limited to the region of aliphatic tails in liquid-disordered phases. In living cells, understanding the membrane structure provides crucial information on its functional properties, such as exo- and endocytosis, cell mobility and signal transduction.

Ultra-fast frame rate CMOS cameras, combined with a photon counting image intensifier, can be used for microsecond resolution wide-field time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) microscopy. A sequence of frames is recorded after an excitation pulse, and the number and location of photons in each frame is determined. This process is repeated until enough photons are recorded for a photon arrival time histogram in the pixels of the image. This approach combines low, nanowatt excitation power with single-photon detection sensitivity and arrival timing in many pixels simultaneously, short acquisition times in the order of seconds and allows lifetime mapping with a time resolution of ~1 microsecond. Moreover, we also show that the phosphor decay can be exploited to time the photon arrival well below the exposure time of the camera. This approach yields better time resolution and larger images than direct imaging of photon events. We show that both methods are ideal for lifetime imaging of transition metal compounds in living cells within a few seconds.

Average lifetime between the usually bi-exponential double-label specimen and a mono-exponential single donor sample serves as a basis for the calculation of the average energy transfer efficiency (E). This semi-quantitative approach however does not fully explore cellular functions, such as endosomal pH differences, specific morphological features, examining sub-populations and the like. We applied a different, quantitative Region-of-Interest (ROI)-based method in 2 live-cell assays by TCSPC FLIM-FRET microscopy: a 5 amino-acid linked FRET standard and mouse pituitary cells expressing a dimerized C/EBPα-bZip transcription factor in the nucleus, both tagged with Cerulean (C) and Venus (V). ROIs with different selection thresholds were generated and compared. Average lifetimes are similar, but ratios between them and other subtle differences are revealed by comprehensive distribution information. Following published references, we also explored 3 different methods to calculate FLIM-FRET energy transfer efficiencies for the Cerulean- Venus constructs, producing differences and supporting the long-held notion that E is called 'apparent' efficiency. FRET's greatest contribution continues to be exploring changes taking place at the cellular level and quantifying differences in relative terms between control and variables.

In this plenary presentation, Eric Betzig talks about his scientific journey that led to the Nobel Prize. He made waves early in his career by helping to develop a technique known as near-field microscopy, which brought into focus structures that scientists had long considered too small to see with a light microscope. Eric Betzig is a group leader at Janelia Research Campus of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) in Ashburn, VA. He recieved a BS in physics from California Institute of Technology and a PhD in applied and engineering physics from Cornell University. Betzig received the 2014 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with William Moerner and Stefan Hell, for their development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy.

Collagen is widely used in tissue engineering applications because of its biocompatibility and biodegradability. Detecting collagen microstructure can help to accelerate its applications in tissue engineering. In this study, we followed the changes in microstructure of collagen hydrogels that were digested with collagenase by MPM using Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) and Two photon Fluorescence (TPF) signals. The collagen hydrogels were modified by cross-linkers genipin, EDC or EDC+NHS. For unmodified collagen hydrogels, SHG images showed degradation was underway by about 20 min. For collagen hydrogels modified with EDC or EDC+NHS, preliminary data did not indicate obvious degradation after 22 hours. Modification with genipin induced new fibers that had TPF centered at about 490 nm and 600 nm. The SHG signals were weaker in genipin modified collagen hydrogels. TPF images illustrated that the degradation of the newly induced fluorescent fibers at the surface of the materials was underway after about 2 hours.